Central Pollution Control Board

CHAPTER V

AIR AND WATER QUALITY MONITORING NETWORK

5.1 WATER QUALITY MONITORING

5.1.1 National Water Quality Monitoring Programme

For rational planning of water-pollution control programme, it is imperative to understand the nature and extent of pollution control required. To achieve this, a sound scientific water quality monitoring programme is essential and accordingly water quality monitoring was initiated in the country as early as in year 1976 with limited number of monitoring stations. The monitoring programme was gradually extended all over the country covering all important water bodies. The programme was extensively reviewed during year 2000-2001. During 2001, the number of monitoring stations under the National Water Quality Monitoring Programme has been increased to 784 from 507. The State-wise and water body-wise distribution of water quality monitoring stations is presented in Table 5.1. A number of groundwater stations have been included in the programme. The parameters have also been revised and micro pollutants are introduced in some of the water bodies, which are significantly polluted.

The water quality monitoring results obtained during 2001 indicated that faecal pollution, indicated by high BOD and high coliform density, continue to be the predominant source of pollution. This is mainly due to the large quantity of domestic wastewater being discharged. An attempt is made to classify the observations under different levels of pollution with respect to most critical parameters i.e. BOD, Total & Faecal Coliform. It is observed that 59% of the total 4119 observations taken on BOD during 2001 are having BOD less than 3 mg/l, which is same as observed during the previous year. However, number of observations having BOD more than 6 mg/l has increased from 16% during the year 2000 to 18% during 2001 indicating that pollution load is on increase and water bodies are further being polluted. This can be attributed to water scarcity due to over-abstraction, low rainfall in many parts of the country and increasing pollution load. However, the number of observations having high coliform density have somewhat reduced.

State-wise number of observations falling under different BOD levels, total coliform and faecal coliform is presented in Table 5.2. The data indicate that Maharashtra has highest pollution level in terms of organic pollution which is mainly industrial in nature followed by Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Similarly, Coliform levels were found highest in Uttar Pradesh.

The total riverine length under different pollution level is presented in Fig 5.4. The State-wise reverine length under different levels of pollution is presented in Fig 5.5.

Table 5.1 Statewise and water body wise Distribution of Water Quality Monitoring Stations

State/UT	No. of Monitoring Stations under Program				Water body-wise distribution
State/UT	MINARS	GEMS	YAP	Total	River	Ground Water	Lakes	Others
Andhra Pradesh	50	9	-	59	28	24	4	3
Assam	29	-	-	29	17	10	-	2
Bihar	11	4	-	15	15	-	-	-
Chhatisgarh	11	-	-	11	11	-	-	-
Goa	11	-	-	11	10	-	1	-
Gujarat	32	9	-	41	34	3	4	-
Haryana	16	-	1	17	4	-	2	11
Himachal Pradesh	36	-	-	36	25	8	3	-
J & K	9	-	-	9	7	--	2	-
Karnataka	31	5	-	36	34	--	2	-
Kerala	46	9	-	55	30	15	10	-
M.P.	47	5	-	52	40	9	3	-
Maharashtra	33	5	-	38	35	-	-	3
Meghalaya	13	-	-	13	5	5	3	-
Manipur	12	-	-	12	8	-	4	-
Orissa	54	-	-	54	39	15	-	-
Punjab	37	-	-	37	35	-	2	-
Pondicherry	10	-	-	10	1	7	2	-
Rajasthan	32	-	-	32	7	18	7	-
Tamil Nadu	28	4	-	32	27	2	3	-
Tripura	13	-	-	13	3	7	2	1
U.P.	77	-	14	91	60	26	2	3
West Bengal	34	-	-	34	18	15	1	-
Daman and Diu	3	-	-	3	2	1	-	-
Dadra Nagar Haveli	2	-	-	2	1	1	-	-
Lakshadweep	16	-	-	16	-	15	-	1
Nagaland	5			5	5	-	-	-
Sikkim	9			9	9	-	-	-
Delhi	2	-	10	12	4	-	-	8
Total		50	25		514	181	57	32

The water quality trend based on Biochemical Oxygen Demand, Total Coliform and Faecal Coliform of past several years is presented in Fig 5.1 to Fig 5.3:

Fig 5.1 Water Quality Trend based on Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Fig 5.2 Water Quality Trend based on Total Coliform

Fig 5.3 Water Quality Trend based on Faecal Coliform

Table 5.2 Number of Observations Derived from the Water Quality Monitoring Data (2001)

STATE	Biochemical Oxygen Demand			Total Coliform No/100ml			Faecal Coliform No/100 ml
STATE	<3	3-6	>6	<500	500-5000	>5000	<500	500-5000	>5000
Andhra Pradesh	121	57	52	29	13	0	39	0	0
Assam	107	9	11	16	51	51	25	30	8
Bihar	146	3	0	11	74	44	52	69	7
Delhi	13	2	94	0	3	24	6	8	13
Goa	37	11	0	46	0	0	46	0	0
Gujarat	100	28	84	89	48	75	123	58	31
Himachal Pradesh	101	4	3	88	18	0	99	5	0
Haryana	54	5	13	3	3	17	7	8	6
Karnataka	366	33	14	157	204	0	226	131	0
Kerala	265	0	0	114	151	0	232	32	0
Lakshdweep	7	0	0	3	5	0	5	2	0
Maharashtra	0	264	179	364	78	0	442	0	0
Manipur	32	13	1	46	0	0	0	0	0
Meghalaya	13	2	19	22	12	0	21	10	0
Madhya Pradesh	344	73	34	300	91	10	92	6	2
Orissa	173	137	8	104	130	84	146	112	60
Punjab	34	22	22	17	49	13	60	16	1
Pondicherry	12	1	0	1	0	0	1	0	0
Rajasthan	59	8	6	41	26	1	63	0	0
Sikkim	17	0	1	0	11	7	0	14	4
Tamil Nadu	164	46	41	164	78	9	212	27	5
Tripura	40	0	0	5	17	0	19	3	0
Uttar Pradesh	176	119	155	21	158	236	56	144	129
West Bengal	104	47	13	8	4	98	11	2	96
TOTAL	2485	884	750	1649	1224	669	1983	677	362
TOTAL NO. OF RECORDS RECEIVED				4119

Status of Wastewater Generation & Treatment

It is estimated that 22900 MLD of domestic wastewater is generated from urban centres against 13000 MLD industrial wastewater (Fig 5.6). The treatment capacity available for domestic wastewater is only for 6000 MLD, against 8000 MLD of industrial wastewater. Thus, there is a big gap in treatment of domestic wastewater. Govt. of India is assisting the local bodies to establish sewage treatment plants under the Ganga Action Plan and subsequently under the National River Action Plan. Since the task is massive, it may take long time to tackle the treatment of entire wastewater. It is estimated that the total cost for establishing treatment system for the entire domestic wastewater would be around Rs. 7560 crores. Operation & maintenance cost would be in addition to this cost. Similarly, there is a gap in treatment of about 5000 MLD of industrial wastewater, mainly generated from small-scale industries. Establishing effluent treatment systems in small scale industries is a problem, since a large number of them are located in residential areas, where space is a constraint. Moreover, the small-scale industries are not having adequate resources to establish treatment systems. Such industries need to establish common effluent treatment plants (CETPs). A number of such facilities have been established across the country. It is expected that establishment of CETPs would reduce the pollution load in the aquatic resources of the country to a large extent.

5.1.3 Status of Sewage Treatment in the Ganga Basin

The Ganga basin spreads over an area of 8,61,404 Km² covering the States of Uttaranchal, Uttar Pardesh, Haryana, Delhi, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar, Jharkhand & West Bengal. There are 223 cities/towns (Municipalities/ Corporations) generating significant amount of sewage in the Ganga basin. These cities/towns generate about 8250 MLD (million litre per day) of wastewater, out of which about 2460 MLD is directly discharged into the Ganga river, about 4570 MLD is discharged into its tributaries or sub- tributaries and about 1220 MLD is disposed on land or on low- lying areas ( Fig 5.7 and Table 5.3).

Table 5.3 Summary of Sewage Generation, Treatment and Disposal in the Ganga Basin

Sewage Generation

1. Total number of towns generating significant amount of sewage ( Class I cities and class II towns )	222
2. Sewage generating from these towns	8250 MLD
3. Sewage directly disposed into the Ganga River	2460 MLD
4. Sewage disposed into tributaries of the Ganga River	4570 MLD
5. Sewage disposed on land or low lying areas	1220 MLD

Sewage Treatment

1. Sewage Treatment capacity created under Ganga Action Plan Phase-I	882 MLD
2. Sewage Treatment capacity created along the Yamuna	2647 MLD
3. Additional towns where sewage treatment capacity is being created under GAP Phase-II	48 (600 MLD)
4. Number of towns where sewage treatment capacity is being created on tributaries of the Ganga	23 (750 MLD)

Out of 8250 MLD wastewater generated in the Ganga basin, the treatment facilities available for 3500 MLD of wastewater. Out of 3500 MLD treatment capacity, 882 MLD is created under the Ganga Action Plan, 720 MLD is created under the Yamuna Action Plan by NRCD/MoEF and about 1927 MLD treatment capacity is created or under augmentation by the Govt. of Delhi for restoration of water quality in Yamuna river. The treatment facilities at 48 additional towns along the Ganga river and 23 towns on its tributaries/sub- tributaries are being created under GAP Phase-II and National River Action Plan. It is expected that after completion of these plans, an additional capacity of about 1500 MLD will be created. However, still there will be a large gap between the wastewater generation and treatment capacity.

5.1.4 Sewage Treatment Plants along the Ganga

The status of operation and maintenance of the STPs along the Ganga was inspected by CPCB during the year 2001. The findings of the inspection are summarised below :

Out of 35 STPs planned under GAP Phase I (3 STPs in Uttaranchal, 10 STPs in U.P., 7 STPs in Bihar, and 15 STPs in West Bengal), 32 have been commissioned and 29 were found functioning. Adequate fund allocation for Operation & Maintenance of STPs is not provided particularly in Bihar and U.P.
A number of sewage treatment plants are under-loaded e.g. Jajmau Kanpur, DLW Varanasi, Naini Allahabad and some are over-loaded e.g. Dinapur and Bhagwanpur at Varanasi.
Many treatment plants needs upgradation e.g. all the STPs of Bihar, Swargashram at Rishikesh, Kankhal Haridwar, Jajmau Bhatpara, Titagarh, Panihati.
Out of 1345 MLD of sewage joining the Ganga river as estimated during 1985, the STPs were planned for only 875 MLD. Since then, the volume of sewage has significantly increased.
In Bihar, the treatment plants at Karmali Chak (Patna), and Munger are yet to be constructed. Similarly STP at Chapra and Bhagalpur are under-designed as their capacity is 2 MLD & 11 MLD against 8.74 MLD and 28 MLD respectively. The Chapra STP is not receiving the sewage as it is located far away (5 km) and there is siltation in the drain, which is supposed to carry the sewage through gravity flow.
None of the STPs has obtained consent from the concerned State Pollution Control Boards, although it is obligatory under The Water Act, 1974.
Inadequacy of trained personal for Operation & Maintenance work is a major shortcoming.
Non- availability of uninterrupted power is another problem in most of the places. Since the STPs are biological in nature, their continuous operation is required in order to maintain the biological growth at activated level.

5.1.5 Status of Sewage Treatment at Delhi

Delhi generates about 3600 MLD of wastewater. Out of which operational treatment facility is available for 1680 MLD. Plant-wise sewage treatment capacity is presented in Table 5.4. It is observed that there is continuous efforts by the Delhi Govt to augment the treatment capacity. However, the exponential population growth is nullifying the results. Fig 5.8 presents the decadal growth of sewage generation and its treatment. As evident from the figure, the gap between generation and treatment is widening inspite of the efforts of the authorities and monitoring by the Hon’ble Supreme Court.

Table 5.4 Status of Sewage Treatment Plant in Delhi (Total capacity Vs Actual Flow

Sewage Treatment Plant	Total Capacity (Million litres per day )	Actual Flow (Million litres per day )
Mehrauli	22.7	Nil
Vasant Kunj	22.7	18.16
Okhla	635.0	594.74
Najafgarh	22.7	Nil
Papan Kalan	90.8	40.9
Keshopur	272.4	363.2
Nilothi	181.6	Under Construction
Coronation Pillar	181.6	127.12
Rohini	68.1	Under Construction
Narela	45.4	2.27
Rithala	363.2	249.7
Yamuna Vihar	45.4	36.32
Kondli	204.3	99.88
Sen Nursing Home	10.0	11.95
Delhi Gate Rajghat	10.0	11.90
Timarpur Oxidation Pond	27.24	4.54

5.1.6 Monitoring of Yamuna River for Assessment of Water Quality

River Yamuna, a tributary of River Ganga flow in a stretch of 1376 km from Yamunotri to Allahabad. The river is influenced by three major urban centers i.e. Delhi, Mathura-Vrindavan and Agra during its course. Among these three urban centers, Delhi stands first based on the pollution contribution into the river Yamuna. The water quality of river Yamuna from origin upto Delhi u/s Wazirabad remains fairly good most of the time, while the river stretch from downstream Wazirabad Delhi to upstream Chambal confluence to the river carries deteriorated water quality mainly because of contribution and impact of urban centers located on its bank. Out of 341 km stretch, 22 km of Delhi segment is the most polluted. The main reason of pollution in this segment is the wastewater discharge from domestic and industrial sources.

The Central Pollution Control Board is regularly monitoring Yamuna river on monthly basis in Delhi segment at three locations i.e. Palla, Nizamuddin barrage and Okhla barrage. In addition, monitoring of 22 drains, which are the major source of pollution in the river are also being undertaken regularly. The water quality of drains and river Yamuna in Delhi stretch is depicted in Table 5.5 and 5.6. The total calculated discharge of these 22 drains is approx. 46.30 m³ /sec, which contributes 311.05 Tonnes of BOD load per day. From the total discharge of these drains Yamuna receives more than 90% wastewater discharge and rest wastewaters contributed by two drains joining canals. Similarly out of 311.05 Tonnes of BOD load, Yamuna receives 283.98 tonnes of BOD load per day and rest received by canals.

Table 5.5 Pollution Load of Drains Meeting River Yamuna in Delhi
(January – December 2001)

S. No.	Drains	Flow m³/sec	% Contribution	BOD Load Tonnes/day	% Contribution
1.	Najafgarh Drain	23.85	51.51	78.13	25.12
2.	Magazine Road	0.09	0.19	1.64	0.52
3.	Sweepers Colony	1.21	2.61	1.04	0.33
4.	Khyber Pass	0.06	0.12	0.06	0.02
5.	Metcalf Drain	0.08	0.17	0.38	0.12
6.	Mori Gate Drain	0.48	1.04	4.66	1.50
7.	Tonga Stand	0.07	0.15	1.20	0.39
8.	Civil Mill Drain	0.70	1.51	14.15	4.55
9.	Power House	0.47	1.02	7.86	2.53
10.	Moat Drain	0.03	0.06	0.19	0.06
11.	Sen Nursing Home	1.86	4.02	34.28	11.02
12.	Drain No. 12 A	0.23	0.50	0.69	0.22
13.	Drain No. 14	1.59	3.43	15.27	4.91
14.	Barapulla Drain	1.38	2.98	9.22	2.96
15.	Maharani Bagh	1.09	2.35	32.78	10.54
16.	Kalkaji Drain	0.09	0.19	0.36	0.12
17.	Tuglakabad	0.14	0.30	1.23	0.39
18.	Shahdara Drain	6.70	14.47	48.44	15.57
19.	Sarita Vihar Drain	1.10	2.38	25.42	8.17
20.	Drain Near LPG Plant	0.48	1.04	2.74	0.88
21.	Drain Near Bridge Sarita Vihar	4.49	9.70	29.66	9.53
22.	Tehkhand Drain	0.11	0.24	1.65	0.53
Total		46.30	100	311.05	100

The Delhi segment of river Yamuna has oligotrophic head with saprobic tail end, and characterized by high bacterial load (except at Palla) having high BOD with strong disagreeable odour. The anaerobic condition in river is frequently reflected by masses of gaseous sludge rising from the bottom and floating at the surface of water.

Table 5.6 Water Quality of River Yamuna in Delhi Stretch (22 kms)
(January – December 2001)

S. No.	Parameters		Monitored Location
S. No.	Parameters		Palla	Nizamuddin Bridge	D/s Okhla Barrage
1.	pH	Min	7.18	6.94	6.91
		Max	8.42	7.55	7.43
		Av	7.76	7.22	7.22
2.	Dissolved Oxygen mg/l	Min	5.9	Nil	Nil
		Max	9.8	3.7	2.0
		Av	8.5	0.80	0.40
3.	Bio-chemical Oxygen Demand mg/l	Min	1.0	6.0	6.0
		Max	3.0	54.0	77.0
		Av	1.5	22.7	41.3
4.	Total Coliforms Nos./100 ml	Min	600	80,000	88,000
		Max	69,000	7,00,00,000	7,00,00,000
		Av	22,662	88,89,166	1,02,53,166
5.	Faecal Coliforms Nos./100 ml	Min	34	500	2,000
		Max	5,000	1,41,00,000	57,00,000
		Av	882	26,23,075	21,37,216

Min = Minimum; Max = Maximum; Av = Average

5.1.7 Performance Monitoring of Sewage Treatment Plants (STP’s) under Yamuna Action Plan (YAP)

The National River Conservation Directorate, Ministry of Environment & Forests has assigned project to Central Pollution Control Board for Performance Monitoring of Sewage Treatment Plants under Yamuna Action Plan during March, 1999. The performance monitoring of five sewage treatment plants (four in Haryana and one in Delhi) is undertaken since May, 1999 on monthly basis (Table 5.7). 24 Hrs composite at 2 hourly interval samples of STP influent and effluent are being collected from influent and effluent channels and being analyzed for various physico-chemical parameters i.e. pH, Temperature, Suspended Solids, Volatile Suspended Solids, Dissolved Oxygen, BOD, COD, NO₃,-N, NH₃,-N, Phosphate, Total coliform, Faecal Coliform etc. In addition, the generated sewage sludge from STP is also being collected and analyzed for pH, Heavy metals (seven trace metals) and pesticides.

Table 5.7: Sewage Treatment Plants (STP’s) under Yamuna Action Plan Monitored under NRCD Project

S. No.	State	Monitored STP	Treatment Capacity	Type of Treatment
1.	Delhi	Sen Nursing Home	10 MLD	Aerobic
2.	Haryana	STP Gurgaon	30 MLD	UASB
		STP Zone-I Faridabad	20 MLD	UASB
		STP Zone-II Faridabad	45 MLD	UASB
		STP Zone-III Faridabad	50 MLD	UASB

5.1.8 Performance Monitoring of Oxidation Pond Based Sewage Treatment Plants in Uttar Pradesh under Yamuna Action Plan

The monitoring of Oxidation Ponds in Uttar Pradesh as identified by National River Conservation Directorate, Ministry of Environment & Forests being undertaken by Central Pollution Control Board Laboratories in addition to STP’s already being monitored. Following seven Oxidation ponds, as identified by National River Conservation Directorate (NRCD) are being monitored on monthly basis since January, 2002:

Table 5.8: Oxidation Pond based Sewage Treatment Plants in Uttar Pradesh Monitored by CPCB

S. No	STP Location	Capacity (MLD)
1.	Main Town, Vrindavan	4
2.	Kaliadah, Vrindavan	0.5
3.	Trans Yamuna, Mathura	14
4.	Masani, Mathura	14
5.	Trans Yamuna, Agra	10
6.	Buria Ka Nagla, Agra	2.5
7.	Main Town, Etawah	10

Grab samples are collected on monthly basis from inlet and outlet of each Oxidation Pond and analyzed for flow (analyzed in field, temperature (Analyzed in field), pH, Total Dissolved Solids, Total Suspended Solids, Chemical Oxygen Demand, Bio-chemical Oxygen Demand and Dissolved Oxygen (Analyzed in the field) apart from bacteriological parameters viz. Total Coliforms and Faecal Coliforms.

5.1.9 Performance Monitoring of Sewage Treatment Plants (STP’s) at Delhi

The project for surveillance of raw sewage & treated effluent quality from sewage treatment plants installed in NCT-Delhi has been undertaken by Central Pollution Control Board for performance monitoring. The performance monitoring of Sewage Treatment Plants has been undertaken between September, 2000 to September 2001 on monthly basis under Delhi Jal Board sponsored project. Grab samples have been collected from the raw sewage and treated sewage wastewater of various units of sewage treatment plants and analyzed for seven physico-chemical parameters i.e. flow, temperature, BOD, COD, suspended solids, pH, oil & grease. In addition, heavy metals and pesticides have also been analyzed in raw sewage, treated sewage & in sludge on regular basis.

Table 5.9 STP’s Monitored Under Delhi Jal Board Sponsored Project with Treatment Capacity

S. No.	ame of STP	Wastewater Treatment Capacity
1.	Yamuna Vihar	10 MGD
2.	Coronation Pillar	40 MGD
3.	Rithala	40 MGD
4.	Keshopur	60 MGD
5.	Sen Nursing Home	10 MLD
6.	Delhi Gate	10 MLD
7.	Kondli	35 MGD
8.	Okhla	140 MGD
9.	Vasant Kunj	5.2 MGD

BIO-MONITORING OF RIVERS/WATER BODIES

5.2.1 BIO-MONITORING OF RIVERS/WATER BODIES AT CRITICALLY POLLUTED AREAS/RIVER STRETCHES

The importance and use of biological monitoring system, as a cost-effective tool, has been realized in recent past to maintain and restore the wholesomeness of water quality in terms of ecological sustainability of various designated best-uses of water bodies. It has been observed that the desired quality levels are quite often delinked with the observed water quality of water bodies for designated best uses due to number of integrated environmental management problems as a result of rapid industrialization and urbanization. On the basis of environmental status, twenty four problem areas have been identified in the country. The recipient water bodies of these problem areas are bearing the affect due to environmental degradation.

The bio-monitoring studies in water bodies existing in problem areas have been undertaken at nineteen problem areas in the country in order to make an integrated approach towards environmental management. The main objective of the studies are:

- Biological assessment of water quality of surface water bodies existing in problem areas.

- To evaluate the improvement in water quality as a result of action taken for pollution control in problem areas.

During the reporting period, the bio-monitoring studies at water bodies in vicinity of following problem areas have been accomplished:

Table 5.10 Surface water resources (fresh water) monitored in vicinity of problem areas and their water use status

S. No.	Problem area	City/town	Surface water resources	Water use status of water bodies
1.	Ambedkar Nagar (Tamilnadu) Monitored from February 28 – 3 March, 2001	Vaniambadi	Vinnamangalam lake	Wild life, cattle wading, domestic waste discharge from villages, treated industrial effluents from tanneries
		Yelagiri Hills	Yelagiri Lake	Tourism, drinking water source for villagers
		Gudiatham	Solaiyur Lake	Wild life, drinking water source
		Ranipet	Pullianthengal lake	Irrigation in paddy cultivated lands, domestic, industrial waste discharge
		Ranipet, Pulliankannu village near Panchayat Union Primary School	Karai Lake	Irrigation in cultivated lands, domestic and industrial waste discharge from SIPCOT Industrial complex
		Kaveripakkam, Anicut 7 km from Walajat town	River Palar u/s	Dry river throughout the stretch of Vaniambadi, Girisamudram, Patchakuppam, Madharur village
2.	Angul, Talcher (Orissa) Monitored in October 2000	Rengali	River Brahmani d/s Dam	Hydro-electric power generation, irrigation, cooling water intake
		Samal	D/s barrage	Irrigation
		Kamalanga	D/s Talcher	NALCO Captive power plant
		Talcher	NALCO Ash pond	Treatment of coal ash slurry
			Nandira Jhor u/s	Drinking water source
			Nandira Jhor d/s	Washing, bathing, over flow discharge from NALCO Ash pond
3.	Ankleshwar (Gujarat) Monitored in November 2000	Vagra vilayat water supply at Nand Head works Bharuch	River Narmada	Drinking water supply to GIDC, transported to Dahej treatment plant, irrigation, Intake for cooling water NTPC unit
	Ankleshwar (Gujarat) Monitored in November 2000	Ankleshwar at Golden bridge	Estuary of river Narmada	Religious offerings, bathing, submergence of ashes, fishing
		Furja at Bharuch	Estuary of River Narmada	Domestic waste water discharge of Bharuch through drain near Dutta temple and surface run offs, washing, fishing
		Juna Dhanturia village	Estuary of River Narmada	Irrigation to cultivated lands, fishing industrial waste water discharge from Ankleshwar industrial area through Amlakhadi drain
4.	Bhadravathi (Karnataka) Monitored in March 2001	Lakkavalli	River Bhadra at Bhadravathi barrage	Drinking water source, irrigation, fishing
			River Bhadra at d/s Bhadravathi barrage	Hydro-electric power generation, cooling water discharge, irrigation, drinking water source (direct)
		Bhadravathi town, near bus stand	Bhadra river	Domestic and industrial waste discharge from Bhadravathi town
		Shimoga, Mehboob Nagar	River Tunga u/s	Open defaecation, domestic waste discharge in d/s stretches
		Gondhichatnahalli	River Tunga d/s	Irrigation, fishing
		Kudli	River Tunga and Bhadra after confluence	Industrial waste water discharge from MPM & VSIL from Bhadravathi irrigation, fishing, religious offerings
		Honali	River Tungbhadra	Drinking water source (direct after filtration), washing bathing etc.
		Harihar	River Tungbhadra u/s Harihar	Religious offerings, washing bathing, cremation, fishing etc.
			D/s Harihar	Industrial discharges from M/s Harihar Polyfibres and Grasim industries, irrigation, fishing
5.	Dhanbad (Jharkhand)	Talmacchu Bridge	River Damodar b/c Ganga river	Bokaro Thermal Power Station township and industrial discharge, waste water from coal washery and collieries
	Monitored in March 2001		River Damodar a/c Garga river	Domestic waste water discharge through Garga river, coal ash slurry discharge
		Jitpur, Jamadoba water works	River Damodar b/c Karizore Nalla	Drinking water source at Jamadoba, industrial coal washery and collieries. Religious offerings, bathing
		Dungri village	River Damodar a/c Karizore Nalla	Domestic and coal mine discharges from Washeries and collieries, mass bathing, religious ceremonies & offerings
		Panchet	River Damodar at Panchet Dam	Drinking water supply, irrigation fishing, wild life, tourism, bathing, Hydro-electric power generation, religious offerings
		Maithan	River Damodar at Maithan Dam	Drinking water supply, irrigation, fishing, wildlife, religious offerings, bathing, hydro-electric power generation
		Anopur	Topchanchi lake	Drinking water source, wildlife, religious offerings

S. No.	Problem area	City/town	Surface water resources	Water use status of water bodies
6.	Durgapur (West Bengal)	Kulti in Asansol	River Barakar	Drinking water source, irrigation, coal mining process
	Monitored in March 2001	Purulia village, Dishergarh Ghat in Bardhman district	River Damodar a/c of River Barakar	Drinking water source, fishing, bathing etc.
		Majhar Mana village in Shyampur	River Damodar b/c Tamla nalla	Drinking water source, irrigation
		Narayan Puri village	River Damodar	Industrial and domestic waste water discharge from coal mines and Thermal power plants etc.
		Dhena village	River Damodar a/c of Damra and Dihika drain	Drinking water supply intake, discharge from coal Washeries, industrial and domestic waste discharge from IISCO Burnpur
7.	Howrah (West Bengal) Monitored in March 2001	Diamond Harbour, Kolkata Port Trust	Estuary of River Hooghli b/c Bay of Bengal	Fishing, tourism, religious, offerings, industrial and domestic waste discharges of Howrah, mass bathing on religious occasions
		Nazirgunge, Khaya Ghat	River Hooghli u/s	Botanical garden, transportation, dockyard, Thermal Power Plant’s cooling water intake, fishing, religious offerings
		Palta Water Works Barrackpore	River Hooghli u/s	Drinking water supply
		Baranagar CMDA Kamarhati Water Works	River Hooghli u/s	Drinking water supply, raw water pumping station
8.	Jodhpur (Rajasthan)	Kurigaon	River Jojri	Domestic waste water discharge after treatment, irrigation
	Monitored in November 2000	Salavas	River Jojri	Textile and pickling industrial waste, water discharge after treatment, irrigation
		Kaylana	Kaylana lake (termination of Indira Gandhi Canal)	Drinking water source, irrigation, tourism
9.	Kochi (Kerala) Monitored during February 22 – March 2, 2002	Ambalamedu (Udyogmandal Division) Eloor-Alwaye Belt	Ambalamedu Lake, Water source from River Periyar at Bhoothathan Kettu Barrage	Industrial use for M/s FACT, Cochin Division, M/s Cochin Refinery, M/s HOC Ltd., bird Sanctuary, Drinking water source for township
		Bhoothathan-Kettu	River Periyar on Periyar Barrage	Irrigation, Tourism
		Idukki town	River Periyar d/s of Cheruthoni Check Dam	Washing clothes, automobiles, bathing tourism

S. No.	Problem area	City/town	Surface water resources	Water use status of water bodies
		3 km u/s from Idukki town near school	Cheruthoni Dam and Idukki Arch Dam on River Periyar	Hydro-electric power generation, irrigation water supply, wildlife sanctuary
		Kanjar at 5 km from Moolamattom	River Thodupuza d/s of Malankara Reservoir at Moolamattom	Receiving tail race water of Idukki Hydel Project, Irrigation, bathing washing, tourism
		Kalady near International air port	River Periyar	Water supply, irrigation washing etc.
		Alwaye	Mangalapuzha Branch of River Periyar	Sewage disposal point, bathing, washing, fishing, transport, irrigation, tourism
		FACT (Udyogmandal Division) Kalamassery	Idamula Branch from Marthandavarma Branch of River Periyar	Fresh water intake point for water treatment intake well of M/s FACT, Udyogmandal Division
10.	Korba, (Chhattisgarh)	Kathghora	River Hasdeo at Bango Dam u/s	Drinking water source (direct), irrigation
	Monitored in April 2001		River Hasdeo at d/s Bango Dam	Bango Hydro-electric power generation cooling water discharge, irrigation, drinking water source
		Ghamota village Lotlota Ashdyke Chhattisgarh State Electricity Board (CSEB) Korba	River Hasdeo u/s	Drinking water source, irrigation, fishing
		Korba	Lotlota Ash dyke seepage drain	Ash dyke seepage discharge, bathing etc. washing treatment of coal ash (CSEB)
			River Hasdeo d/s seepage discharge	Ash dyke seepage discharge, cattle wading, washing, fishing etc..
		NTPC Korba	NTPC ash pond seepage drain near right bank canal NTPC	Treatment of coal ash slurry of NTPC
		Purani Basti Rani Road Korba	River Hasdeo a/c river Ahiran, d/s Korba	Overflow from Ash ponds discharge, surface runoff from mine over burden, Dengur Nullah, Belgiri and Jharia Nullah from coal mines discharges
		Champa	River Hasdeo d/s Korba	Coal Washeries, collieries, coal ash, industrial and domestic discharge of Korba and Champa
		Manjhia village in Kera	River Mahanadi b/c river Hasdeo	Irrigation, drinking water source

S. No.	Problem area	City/town	Surface water resources	Water use status of water bodies
		Saliaghat in Bhatgaon	River Mahanadi a/c River Hasdeo	Irrigation, fishing, bathing, cattle wading, drinking water source, religious offerings, discharges through river Hasdeo from u/s at Kera
11.	Kala-Amb (Himachal Pradesh)	Kharjuna village near Shambhuwala, 6 km u/s of Kala-Amb (H.P.)	River Markanda u/s	Tourism, domestic waste water discharge of Nahan town, agriculture
	Monitored in June 2001	Kala-Amb, adjacent to Vashist chemicals at Haryana border	River Markanda opposite to Suketi Fossil Park	Tourism, industrial activities of Turpentine, lime kiln, cement, steel melting and rolling, agriculture, u/s of Ruchira Paper Mill
		Kala-Amb d/s Ruchira Paper Mills	River Markanda d/s of Jattanwala Nullah	Industrial wastewater discharge of paper industries, agriculture
		Assan in Paonta Sahib (H.P.)	Upstream of river Yamuna near Assan reservoir	Hydel project, irrigation canals, waste water discharge from domestic and industrial area of Gondpur and Ranbaxy
		Sataun	River Giri	Lime Stone mining activities of Sirmour, agriculture area, Lime stone stock yard of Hiyona mines, Batamandi, Paonta Sahib, Manal lime stone mines, CCI of Rajban distt. Sirmour, H.P.

12.	Manali (Tamilnadu)	Walazah Road bridge Chepauk, Chennai	Buckingham Canal	Waste water discharge
	Monitored in March 2001	Laws bridge, Ayyamudali street, Chindadhirpet Chennai	River Cooum	Waste water discharge
		Nandambakkam IDPL Township	River Adyar	Waste water discharge
		U/s of Nesapakkam STP, Thangavel Nagar	River Adyar	Waste water discharge from sewage treatment plant
		U/s Koturpuram sewage pumping station	River Adyar	Waste water discharge from sewage treatment plant
		D/s Koturpuram	River Adyar b/c to Bay of Bengal	Tourism
		Red Hills, Chennai	Red hills lake	Drinking water supply of Krishna water project, tourism
13.	Nagda-Ratlam (Madhya Pradesh)	Nagda, near Intake point	River Chambal u/s Nagda city at weir	Drinking water supply, industrial use for Grasim industries

S. No.	Problem area	City/town	Surface water resources	Water use status of water bodies
		Between Gidgarh and Ninawad village	River Chambal a/c of major drain at Juna Nagda	Industrial and domestic waste discharge of Nagda city
		Banwara	River Chambal	No direct use
	Monitored in October 2000	Jadwasa Khurd	River Kurel B/c of Dosigaon drain	Irrigation, Dry river
	Monitored in October 2000	Bangroad	D/s of Ratlam city	Irrigation, Dry river
14.	Najafgarh Drain Basin (Delhi)	Palla	River Yamuna	Drinking water source for Delhi water supply, irrigation, sand dredging, Ranny wells, tube wells etc.
	Monitored during June to December 2001	Wazirabad water works	River Yamuna	Drinking water source for Delhi water supply
		Wazirabad	River Yamuna	Drinking water supply, religious offering, bathing
		Majnu Ka Tila, Delhi	River Yamuna d/s Wazirabad barrage	Domestic and industrial waste water discharge of Haryana and Delhi through drain No. 6 and Najafgarh drain
		Sonia Vihar	U/s Wazirabad barrage	Sand dredging, cultivation, Renny well, tube well
		ITO Bridge, Gautam Puri	River Yamuna	Melon farming, cooling water intake and discharge of Rajghat Thermal Power Plant, domestic waste water discharge
		ITO Barrage near Kishan Kunj	River Yamuna	Cultivation
		Mundella Kalan	Mundella Khurd	Irrigation, domestic waste discharge
		Bhalswa	Bhalswa lake	Tourism
15.	Pali (Rajasthan)	Pali	River Bandi at Bajrang Bari	Textile waste from dyeing units along with domestic waste water discharge
	Monitored in November, 2000		River Bandi at Main Mandia road	Treated effluent from CETP I, II, III phase are discharged in river Bandi
		Manpura Bhakri 3 km from Pali	Hemavas dam	Drinking water source
16.	Parwanoo (Himachal Pradesh)	Kamli village	River Kaushalya at u/s Kamli water works scheme	Drinking water source, agriculture, bathing, washing
	Monitored in June 2001	Kamli village near Himachal Oxygen factory	River Kaushalya at d/s Kamli water works scheme	Domestic discharge from Kamli village

S. No.	Problem area	City/town	Surface water resources	Water use status of water bodies
		Ambota village, Near Shivloti Temple, Bhagwala	Sukhna Nallah at u/s of water supply scheme of Sector 5	Bathing, religious activities of Shivloti temple, various plantation schemes of Nahan, drinking water source of Parwanoo
		Parwanoo	Sukhna Nalla at Samtel India Ltd., Plot No. 6	Industrial and domestic waste discharges of Sector-2 industrial area
			Sukhna Nallah at d/s water supply scheme, Kalka near Parwanoo Barrier	Discharges from Parwanoo sector 2, 5 & 8 industrial area, small scale electroplating industries and pharmaceutical industries, Eicher Ltd., HPMC Fruit Processing units etc.
17.	Patancheru Bollaram (Andhra Pradesh) Monitored in February 2001	Sangareddy, Hyderabad	River Manjira at Manjira barrage	Major wetland site for wildlife, drinking water source, raw water intake, Hyderabad Metro Water Sewerage Board, Satya Sai water supply project at Shivampet village
		Shivampet, Hyderabad	River Manjira u/s	Industrial waste water discharge from Charminar Breweries and Ganpathi sugars
		Gondicherla	River Manjira 2 km d/s of confluence to Nakkavagu	Irrigation, drinking water (direct) source, industrial waste water discharge through Nakkavagu
		Gandiguda village at Patancheru Mandal	Gandigudem Cheruvu	Industrial waste water discharge, idol submersion
		Kistareddypet village, Ramchandrapuram mandal	Kistareddypet Tank	Bollaram IDA industrial discharge, domestic waste water discharge
		Gandipet at Hyderabad	U/s of River Musi at Osman Sagar	Drinking water source, tourism
		Pratapsingaram village	D/s of River Musi	Domestic waste water discharge, irrigation in adjacent cultivated land
		Hyderabad, near Necklace Road	Hussain Sagar on west side of lake	Tourism
		Hyderabad, behind the Youth hostel boat club	Hussain sagar, north side of lake	Domestic waste water discharge, boating etc.
18.	Singrauli (Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh)	Zorha, 5 km from NTPC Rihand	River Azir b/c Rihand Reservoir	Irrigation, cattle wading, bathing etc.

S. No.	Problem area	City/town	Surface water resources	Water use status of water bodies
	Monitored during April, June, and September 2000	Rakasganda at Balangi (M.P.)	River Rihand u/s	Bathing
		Bijpur-Waidhan road	River Rihand b/c to Rihand reservoir	Irrigation
		Pipri-Sonbhadra	River Rihand d/s Rihand Dam	Hydroelectric power generation, burning ghat at Swargpuri
		Pipri-Renukut	River Rihand d/s Rihand Dam	-
		Bijpur-Sidhi	River Kanchan	Irrigation
			River Mayar	Irrigation
		Chopan-Sonbhadra	RiverSone u/s	Industrial waste discharge
		Chopan-Sonbhadra	RiverSone a/c River Rihand	Cooling water discharge from Obra Thermal power plant, intake water
		Varanasi	River Ganga a/c river Son	Fishing, dead bodies disposal, bathing, washing etc. domestic sewage pumping (intermittent)
		Varanasi-Shakti Nagar Road, Singrauli	Siltation tank a/c Bina colliery drain	Bina coal mine processing, discharge
		Sonbhadra	Balia nullah at Jayant road	Jayant coal mine processing discharge
		Tilgawan	Rihand reservoir	Domestic waste water alongwith Balia nalla carrying coal mine waste water
		Kohraul	Rihand reservoir	-
		Pipri Sonwani	Rihand reservoir	-
		Sasan village	Rihand reservoir a/c river Mayar	Irrigation
		Gaubha Tola Balsota	Rihand reservoir	Irrigation
		Sidhi (M.P.)	Rihand reservoir NTPC-Rihand	Cooling water discharge of NTPC Rihand
		Rihand Nagar	Rihand reservoir at Boat point	Cooling water intake for NTPC Rihand
			Cooling water intake at screening pit of NTPC Rihand TPP	Cooling water intake of NTPC Rihand Thermal Power Plant
		Shakti Nagar	Rihand reservoir	Cooling water intake of Singrauli Super Thermal Power Plant
		Shahpur	Rihand reservoir	Cooling water discharge from Vindhyachal and Singrauli Super Thermal Power Plant
		Shahpur	Rihand reservoir	Ash dyke of SSTPP, coal ash slurry discharge

S. No.	Problem area	City/town	Surface water resources	Water use status of water bodies
		Renukut Shiv Mandir near Renu Sagar & Anpara	Rihand reservoir at Ash dyke	Coal ash slurry discharge from Renu Sagar and Anpara Thermal Power Plant, Fishing
		Renu Sagar Thermal Power Plant	Rihand reservoir	Raw water intake at Make up pump house of Renu Sagar Thermal Power Plant
		Dongia village Renukut near Rly colony	Rihand reservoir	Drinking water source from underground stream. Industrial waste water discharge
			Dongia Nullah	Industrial waste water from Kanodia Chemicals, drinking water source, fishing, bathing
19.	Vapi (Gujarat)	Madhuban at Silvassa	River Damanganga d/s Madhuban dam	Drinking water source, irrigation
	Monitored during Oct. and Nov. 2000	Silvassa (Dadra Nagar Haveli)	River Damanganga at Ras Resort	Burning Ghat
		Piparia in Silvassa	River Damanganga	Washing, cattle wadding, irrigation, drinking water source at d/s reaches at Weir
		GIDC, Vapi	River Damanganga d/s	GIDC, Common effluent treatment plant’s treated water discharge, municipal solid waste dumping
		National Highway No. 8, Vapi	River Kolak u/s Vapi	Dredging sand
		Vattar village	River Kolak d/s of Billkhadi Drain	Dredging sand, industrial domestic waste discharge of Vapi through Billkhadi drain.

u/s = upstream; d/s = downstream; a/c = after confluence;
b/c = before confluence

5.2.2 Water Quality Assessment through Bio-Monitoring of Major Wetlands in Wildlife Habitats of India

The wetlands are the richest and most biologically diverse ecosystem. Many wetlands in India support spectacular diversity of wildlife. Some are centres of rare, threatened and endangered species. Many of them are home of rich variety of mammals, birds, amphibians and reptiles. There is also a phenomenal diversity of insects associated with wetlands. In recent years, wetlands have been the focus of innumerable studies. This is also the only ecosystem type to have its own international convention, namely, the convention on wetlands of International importance especially as waterfowl habitats better known as the Ramsar convention to which India is a signatory.

The high biological productivity and bio-diversity values of wetlands, and the sustenance that these habitats provide to communities, have long been realized. However, the contribution of wetlands in maintaining the food chain in open waters, and in providing a variety of services such as; water quality improvement, flood control, and ground water recharge, among others been emphasized in the context of conservation. With the increase in human population, pressure on land for agriculture and urban and industrial expansion, wetland habitats in India have been destroyed by over exploitation activities. In many cases, such human excesses have greatly reduced bio-diversity, thus upsetting the ecological balance and decreased the values of wetlands. The need and importance of wetlands in water quality management has been greatly realized for improving water quality and wetlands species as bio-indicators. The project studies are undertaken by Central Pollution Control Board with following major objectives

Bio-monitoring of wetlands in wildlife ecosystem will help in prediction and detection of ecological effects to protect rare and endangered biotic species in cost-effective manner.
Generate base line data on bio-monitoring of water bodies being used for propagation of wildlife habitats in India.
Training / interaction to local authorities, NGO’s other institutions such as forest Department State Pollution Control Boards and other concerned organizations.

5.2.3 Water Quality Status of Lakes and Reservoirs in Delhi

Lakes and reservoirs are considered as the most productive and biologically rich inland surface water ecosystem. The growing urbanization, scarcity of potable water and ever increasing anthropogenic influences have been constantly exerting pressure on surface water bodies. The study on water quality status of lakes and reservoir in Delhi have been undertaken with following objectives:

Evaluation of water quality of the selected lentic water bodies in National Capital Territory - Delhi for various physico-chemical parameters including trace metals and pesticides.
Application of bio-monitoring using Benthic macro-invertebrates as indicators of water quality and evaluation of water quality in cost effective manner.
To assess the aesthetic water quality of lakes and reservoirs in Delhi through bacteriological counts.
Bio-accumulation of studies on fishes of few lentic water bodies, which are used for human consumption.
To study the impact of urbanization occurred over the years on these water bodies and to identify the critical factors responsible for their degradation.

Delhi has about 38 lakes or depression and many of these are at the verge of extinction due to rapid urbanization of the city. Delhi Tourism has identified as may as 15 ancient lakes within the city limit for reclamation and restoration of water quality. The selected lakes/reservoirs for the present study and their existing uses are presented in Table 5.11:

Table 5.11 Lakes/Reservoirs in Delhi and their existing uses

S. No.	Lakes/Reservoir	Location	Existing Uses
1.	Bhalswa Lake	Bhalswa	Tourism
2.	Naini Lake	Model Town	Tourism, wildlife, fishing
3.	Jehangirpuri Marsh	Jehangirpuri near J.J. Colony	Dumping of waste, construction material, sewage from adjoining areas etc.
4.	Mundella Khurd	Mundella Kalan	Cattle wading, wastewater discharge from village, cultivation etc.
5.	Mayapuri Lake	Mayapuri	Dumping of solid waste, construction material, sewage discharges from slums, open defecation
6.	Harinagar Lake (Tihar Jheel)	Hari Nagar	Tourism, fishing
7.	Dwarka Depression	Papankalan	Automobile waste discharge, cattle wading
8.	Bagdola Pond	Bagdola, Papankalan	Tourism, fishing
9.	Sanjay Lake	Trilokpuri	Tourism, wildlife, fishing
10.	Seelampur Depression	Seelampur	Wastewater discharge from adjoining colonies, open defecation
11.	Jhilmil Colony Depression	Jhilmil Colony Opp. Police Station	Cattle wading, open defecation
12.	Jhilmil Colony Lake near Hanuman Mandir	Barapulia	Waste water discharge, open defecation
13.	Duckweed Pond	Wazirabad	Duckweed culture, fish culture, waste water treatment
14.	Fish Pond	Wazirabad	Fish culture

Physico-chemical and Bacteriological Water Quality

The water quality status of lakes/reservoirs in Delhi indicate that most of the water bodies are shallow with water temperature between 23-35 ⁰C. Some water bodies are silt laden which normally absorb sunrays and warm up more rapidly than clear water. Tihar Jheel and Dwarka Lake were the typical example of such phenomenon. The pH of water in various water bodies ranged between 7.00 to 8.04. The high values of conductivity in water of lakes indicate high level of dissolved solids, causing ionic imbalance in a water body to an extent, which may disrupts aquatic life. Maximum concentration of total dissolved solids (4002 mg/l) leading to very high conductivity (6160.0 µmhos/cm²) of water was observed in Bhalsawa Lake. The increased dissolved oxygen levels in the lakes during daytime depict eutrophic conditions in most lakes/reservoirs. The nutrient level of the lakes in the form of BOD, COD, Nitrites, Nitrates, Phosphates etc. have been found quite elevated. Almost all the lakes/ reservoirs have been affected by faecal contamination. The sources of increased number of Total Coliforms indicate soil-originated contamination of the water bodies.

Table 5.12 Trace Metals in Water of Lakes and Reservoirs in Delhi

S. No.	Lakes/Reservoirs	Trace Metals, mg/l
S. No.	Lakes/Reservoirs	Cadmium	Chromium	Copper	Iron	Nickel	Lead	Zinc
1.	Sanjay Lake	NT	0.02	NT	0.58	NT	NT	0.06
2.	Tihar Jheel	NT	NT	NT	3.72	NT	NT	NT
3.	Naini Lake	NT	NT	NT	0.70	0.20	NT	NT
4.	Jhilmil Colony Lake	NT	0.19	1.42	21.38	0.17	NT	0.79
5.	Bhalsawa Lake	NT	NT	NT	0.75	0.04	NT	NT
6.	Mayapuri Lake	NT	0.01	0.01	0.28	NT	NT	NT
7.	Mundella Khurd	NT	0.07	0.07	15.38	0.32	NT	0.09
8.	Dwarka Lake	NT	NT	0.01	3.36	NT	NT	NT
9.	Bagdola Pond	NT	0.02	NT	0.49	NT	NT	NT
10.	Duckweed Pond	NT	NT	NT	0.39	NT	NT	0.03
11.	Fish Pond	NT	0.05	0.02	13.99	NT	NT	0.01

NT = Not traceable

Fig 5.11 Water Quality Characteristics in Lakes/Reservoirs in Delhi

Table 5.13 Pesticide Residue in water of Lakes/Reservoirs in Delhi

S. No.	Lakes/Reservoir	Pesticides Residue Concentration, nanogram/l
S. No.	Lakes/Reservoir	Total BHC	Aldrin	Total Endosulfan	Dieldrin	Total DDT
1.	Sanjay Lake	26.16	NT	40.78	1.63	NT
2.	Tihar Jheel	17.96	NT	NT	NT	NT
3.	Naini Lake	28.51	NT	NT	NT	NT
4.	Jhilmil Colony Lake	NT	57.59	NT	NT	NT
5.	Bhalswa Lake	NT	NT	NT	NT	NT
6.	Mayapuri Lake	NT	NT	NT	NT	NT
7.	Mundella Khurd	49.66	NT	NT	4.28	NT
8.	Dwarka Depression	19.73	NT	NT	NT	NT
9.	Bagdola Pond	23.04	NT	NT	NT	33.07
10.	Duckweed Pond	17.94	NT	NT	NT	NT
11.	Fish Pond	752.65	NT	2.99	NT	NT

NT = Not traceable

The trace metals contamination have been found maximum at Jhilmil Colony Lake , where all the trace metals except Cadmium and Lead have been recorded probably because of discharge/surface run off from adjoining Jhilmil Colony industrial units. Among Pesticides, the concentration of Total BHC has been found maximum in Fish Pond at Wazirabad, Aldrin at Jhilmil Colony Lake, Total Endosulfan at Sanjay Lake, Dieldrin at Mundella Khurd and Total DDT at Bagdola Pond. The presence of Total BHC has been observed in most of the water bodies probably due to extensive use of pesticide for Mosquito control.

5.2.4 Biological Water Quality of Lakes/Reservoirs in Delhi

The Biological Water Quality Criteria (BWQC) have been applied for water quality assessment of lakes/ponds/reservoirs in NCT - Delhi. The findings of biological water quality evaluation are presented below:

It was observed from the taxonomic composition that 72.7% of the total invertebrates belonged to Arthropoda, 22.7% Mollusca and 4.5% Annelida. A total of 22 families of Benthic macro-invertebrates were collected from Delhi’s Lakes/Reservoirs.
Maximum numbers of Benthic-macro invertebrate families were collected from Bagdola pond at Papankalan, Mundella Khurd at Mundella Kalan and Tihar Jheel at Hari Nagar. All these water bodies are located in rural areas of Delhi. Lakes/Ponds in Papankalan indicated deposits of oil and grease all around the water body, which greatly influence the habitats of benthic macro-invertebrates and their presence.
The aquatic life of some lakes has been restored by protecting the water quality from soil-erosion and prohibiting these by use of squatters. Saprobic and diversity score in few lakes/ponds in Delhi such as Sanjay Lake, Tihar Jheel, Naini Lake, Bagdola Pond and Duckweed ponds indicate moderate pollution (Class `C’ of Biological Water Quality Criteria).It is observed that Diversity Score has been maximum at Bagdola Pond while Saprobic Score were highest at Mundella Khurd indicating that the water quality in these water bodies have moderate pollution but high productivity.
The bio-assessment of various lakes and ponds in Delhi located at Mayapuri, Seelampur Depression and Jehangirpuri Marsh depicted significant loss of biological life due to poor water quality and sedimentation due to excessive growth of water hyacinth.
Bhalswa Lake was totally devoid of aquatic life including fish, plants, and invertebrates. The foaming in the water body on the banks indicated presence of detergent compounds in water body from the surroundings. The sediments of Bhalswa Lake comprise dead shells of Molluscs mainly gastropods indicating that the gastropods were available at the lake sometimes back, but living gastropods were not encountered.

5.2.5 Bio-monitoring on River Hugli, Kolkata

Biological monitoring of water quality could be useful for assessing the overall health of the water bodies. It is an assessment, which depends on the fact that pollution of water body will disrupt the ecological balance of the system. Thus by measuring the extent of the ecological degradation the intensity of pollution arising out of the improper disposal may be estimated. As river Hooghly runs through the heart of one of the largest urbanized city – the Kolkata, it has been continuously affected by the anthropogenic environment distortion and the rich variety of fauna being threatened. The increased silt deposition and reduced discharge from feeder rivers, discharge of large amount of Industrial effluents and domestic sewage from innumerable industries and Urban centers and withdrawal of huge amount of water both for human consumption and industrial requirement considerably altering the condition of the river in terms of its diversity. The changes in river water quality brought about by modern civilization can be assessed by chemical and biological analysis.

Benthos are regarded as the best indicator of pollution as they are sedentary, sessile, long lived and easily collectable. It is an assesment which depends on the fact that pollution in water body will cause changes in the physical and chemical environment of the water and that those changes will disrupt the ecological balance of the system. Thus, by measuring the extent of the ecological upset, the severity of the pollution can be estimated.

Biomonitoring studies have been undertaken at seven monitoring stations at the Hooghly river of Ganga basin. Diamond Harbour is the extreme downstream station and Behrampore is the extreme upstream station. In between the extreme downstream station and upstream station there are other stations, which are:

Garden reach
Botanical garden
Ariadaha
Palta.
Serrampore.

5.2.6 Monitoring of Polluted stretches of rivers - River Subarnarekha

The Subarnarekha river is an interstate river flowing through the States of Jharkhand, Orissa and West Bengal. The 450 kilometres long Subarnarekha `the streak of gold’ for its gold bearing sands originates from Chotanagpur plateau, about 15 kilometres south-east of capital city of Ranchi. It flows through plateaus and plains area of Jharkhand for about 324 kilometre, 62 kilometre in Orissa and 64 kilometre in West Bengal before meeting Bay of Bengal. Major sources of organic and inorganic pollutants are both domestic and industrial sectors. It is estimated that more than 0.4 million cubic metres of untreated and partially treated wastewater are discharged daily into the Subarnarekha river. Besides, certain quantity of uncontrolled discharge of mine waste and allied economic activities in the basin account for both metallic and non-metallic substances.

The middle stretch of the river from Jamshedpur to Behragora has been chosen for the present study because:

the area is densely populated;
intensive industrial activities (Jamshedpur to Ghatsila);
major urban centres including a place of tourists’ interest (Ghatsila); and,
river water is used for various purposes besides water supply.

Six sampling stations were identified under the study as U/S Jamshedpur, D/S Jamshedpur, Jaduguda, Ghatsila, Mushabani and Behragora. With specific location-wise consideration the river water quality, in terms of primary criteria parameters for designated use, at up and down streams Jamshedpur, Ghatsila and Beharagora do not conform to the desired class `C’ whereas the water quality at Jaduguda and Mushabani meets the required criteria. While considering the study stretch as a whole and the mean values of BOD (>3mg/l) and Total Coliform Bacteria (>5000 MPN/100 ml), the stretch does not qualify the desired class. The present status of water quality is summarized in Table 5.14. Besides the concentration of metals in sediment and in water are presented in Table 5.15 and 5.16.

Table 5.14 Water Quality Status of River Subarnarekha

River Stretch	Assigned Class	Designated Use	Criteria Parameters	Present Status of Water Quality				Remarks	Critical Parameter
River Stretch	Assigned Class	Designated Use	Criteria Parameters	pH	DO	BOD	TC	Remarks	Critical Parameter
Jamshedpur U/S	C	Drinking water source after conventional treatment and disinfection	pH : 6-9 DO : 4 mg/l or more BOD : 3 mg/l or less Total Coliform (TC) : 5000 MPN/ 100ml	8	8.1	3	9000	Does not conform Class `C’	TC
Jamshedpur D/S	C			7.9	7.6	5	16000	Does not conform Class `C’	TC & BOD
Jaduguda	C			7.9	7.6	3	2800	Class `C’
Ghatsila	C			7.6	6.9	3	9000	Does not conform Class `C’	TC
Mushabani	C			7.7	7.8	3	2200	Class `C’
Behragora	C			7.4	8.2	5	9000	Does not conform Class `C’	TC & BOD

Table 5.15 Heavy metals content in water (µg/l) of Subarnarekha

Station	Fe	Pb	Zn	Mn	Cu	Cd	As	Hg	Cr	Co	Ni
Jamshedpur U/S	24	NT	.05	NT	NT	NT	0.012	NT	NT	NT	NT
Jamshedpur D/S	28	NT	NT	NT	NT	NT	0.012	NT	NT	NT	NT
Jaduguda	0.15	NT	NT	NT	NT	NT	0.012	NT	NT	NT	NT
Ghatsila	0.16	NT	NT	NT	.06	NT	0.01	NT	NT	NT	NT
Mushabani	0.12	NT	NT	NT	.05	NT	0.012	NT	NT	NT	NT
Behragora	0.09	NT	NT	NT	NT	NT	0.01	NT	NT	NT	NT

NT = Not Traceable

Table 5.16 Heavy metals content in Sediment (mg/kg) of Subarnarekha

Parameters	Jamshedpur U/S	Jamshedpur D/S	Jaduguda	Ghatsila	Musha Bani	Behra gora
Lead (Pb)	ND	ND	ND	ND	ND	ND
Cadmium (Cd)	ND	ND	ND	ND	ND	ND
Mercury (Hg)	-	1.0	0.7	0.9	3.3	1.8
Arsenic (As)	0.02	0.05	0.03	0.03	0.02	0.02
Cobalt (Co)	13	72	28	51	60	46
Zinc (Zn)	44	77	34	63	52	33
Copper (Cu)	17	27	15	93	229	57
Chromium (Cr)	48	72	28	51	60	46
Manganese (Mn)	440	950	362	500	394	269

ND = Not Detectable

5.2.7Bio-monitoring of Lakes at Bangalore

Bio-monitoring was conducted in Yellemalappa, Sankey and Ulsoor lakes in addition to T.G.Halli reservoir including
its riverine system of Arkavati and Kumudvati. The water quality analysis , in respect of Physico-chemical
and Biological parameters, is presented in Table 5.17 and 5.18.

Table 5.17 Physico-chemical Water Quality of Lakes in Bangalore

Lake/ Reservoir	pH	Cond-uctivity	DO	Alkal- inity	TDS	BOD	COD	Chlo-rides	Na+	Phos-phate	Sulp-hate	Nitrate Nitrogen	Ammonical Nitrogen
Sankey	7.6	419	7.9	142	295	5	34	49	44.	0.15	5	<1	0.19
Ulsoor	7.4	624	8.8	244	441	34	115	63	79	2.79	19	3	1.32
Yellema- lappa	8.7	1071	10	235	556	9	41	186	157	1.14	16	9	-
TG Halli	8.6	283	7.2	100	171	2	10	34	34	0.03	9.7	2	0.06

Note: All values are expressed in mg/l except pH and conductivity (uS/cm).

Table 5.18 Biological Water Quality of Lakes in Bangalore

Lake / Reservoir	Chlorophyll (mg/cu.m )	P / R	SCI	BMWP
Sanky	28.2	1.1	0.2-0.8	5-6.8
Ulsoor	152	<1	Less than 0.5	0.0-0.7
Yellemalappa	288	< 1	0.2-0.9	5.1-6.6
TGHalli	20.6	1.2	0.1-1	Above 7

P/R: Photosynthesis/ Respiration ratio,
SCI: Sequential Comparison Index. The SCI (diversity score) is the ratio of total number of runs and total number of organisms encountered. The ratio is equal to or less than one.
BMWP : Biological Monitoring Working Party (Saprobic score) indicates preference for oxygen availability.

The high level of BOD and COD in Ulsoor and Yellemalappa lakes, depict deteriorating water quality. Further, high concentrations of Phosphorus, Ammonia and Chlorophyll with low P/R ratio indicate that Ulsoor lake is affected due to domestic discharge, whereas the presence of high conductivity, and Boron reveal that industrial discharges are taking place into the Yellemalappa lake. At TG Halli reservoir, the water quality appears to be close to drinking standards. Sankey Lake have moderate water quality and used only for recreational purpose. Except T.G. Halli reservoir, the three lakes are used for " Ganesha" idol immersion and religious activities. Biological analysis supported by physico-chemical analysis of the lakes and reservoirs reveal that TGHalli reservoir is relatively clean, followed by Sankey, Yellemalappa and Ulsoor lakes. It is observed that the diversity score is low in both Ulsoor lake and T.G. Halli reservoir. However, Saprobic score in case of T.G. Halli reservoir indicates the abundance of species requiring high oxygen availability.

5.2.8 Monitoring of River Godavari at Andhra Pradesh

A survey along the Andhra Pradesh stretch of river Godavari was undertaken followed by water quality monitoring at 21 identified locations. Based on the flow data of the river and the quantum of industrial discharge, the total load of pollution as estimated is presented in Table 5.19. A detailed report being prepared to develop an action plan for improvement of water quality.

Table 5.19 Water Quality Status of Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh

Locations	pH	Turbidity	TDS	Total Hard ness	Ca Hard ness	Mg. Hard ness	Alka- inity	Chlo-rides	Sulphate	Phos-phate	Sodium	Boron	NO₂+ NO₃-N	NH₃-N
D/s of confluence with Manjeera River at Basar	8.7	5.6	346	121	112	9	234	90	66	0.02	60	0.12	0.25	BDL
Outfall of M/S.Pioneer Distillery, Nanded	8.5	21.5	450	173	162	11	256	51	99	0.01	86	0.12	0.51	0.01
D/s of outfall of the distillery at Basar	8.5	24.7	350	141	118	23	238	38	71	0.01	66	0.10	0.23	0.03
U/s of sewage outfall , Mancheral	8.8	1.0	302	149	140	9	254	28	22	0.01	104	0.11	0.07	0.01
Outfall of M/S NTPC Ash pond & sewage+APGENCO & sewage, Ramagun-dam	8.8	5.5	666	278	202	76	266	77	200	0.01	96	0.10	0.12	BDL
Outfall of M/S NTPC plant effluent+ M/S FCI sewage at Mancheral	8.7	2.1	364	161	134	27	254	31	23	0.02	52	0.09	0.291	BDL
M/S Singareni Collieries+ sewage at Mancheral	8.8	2.2	952	274	213	61	266	160	284	0.17	200	0.28	1.43	BDL
U/s. of Heavy Water Plant, Bhadra-chalam	8.8	0.5	270	125	112	13	204	28	15	0.02	38	0.05	0.12	0.01
D/s of Heavy Water Plant ,before confluence of river Indravati	8.8	1.3	242	117	106	11	186	29	15	0.00	36	0.05	0.05	BDL
Sewage outfall at Bhadra-chalam	8.8	1.7	256	117	78	39	184	30	14	0.002	38	0.06	0.12	0.003
Outfall of M/S Bhadrachalam Paper Ltd,Bhadra-chalam	8.7	1.4	598	133	101	32	190	43	27	0.01	44	0.02	0.11	BDL
D/s of KTPS discharge into Kinarasany stream before confluence with Godavari	8.7	1.6	294	109	102	7	188	33	18	0.01	36	0.04	0.04	BDL
D/s of confluence with Kinarasany	8.8	1.6	402	121	118	3	192	31	17	0.006	38	0.03	0.08	0.003
U/s of outfall of M/s A.P. Rayon Ltd, Warangal	8.2	38.2	1574	314	263	51	82	554	135	0.35	300	0.32	1.42	3.52
D/s of outfall of M/s A.P. Rayon Ltd	8.7	1.7	288	65	22	43	98	98	5.0	0.03	20	0.13	0.36	BDL
U/s of sewage outfall of Khammam	8.9	1.5	268	65	39	26	98	98	5.0	0.01	14	0.03	0.14	0.004
Outfall of M/S AP Paper Mill, Rajamundry	2.4	3.1	708	161	134	27	4	4	99.0	0.30	1260	0.61	1.86	BDL
Outfall of sewage from Rajamundry	5.8	2.2	80	56	50	6	104	104	5.0	0.01	14.4	0.05	0.18	0.002
D/s of Rajamundry	8.7	1.2	384	113	84	29	190	190	14.0	0.00	35.2	0.10	0.04	0.01
Outfall of ETP of M/S Andhra Sugar Ltd, Kovur	8.6	0.8	384	141	90	51	182	182	15.0	0.01	37.6	0.06	0.05	BDL
Outfall of cooling water of M/S Andhra Sugars Ltd, Kovur	8.7	3.2	1972	113	106	7	206	26	16.0	0.03	40.0	0.15	0.08	0.002

Note:- All values are expressed in mg/l except pH and Turbidity (NTU).

Bio-mapping of River Ramganga

Monthly monitoring of river Ramganga has been undertaken at ten locations during the year. The data collected for Diversity Indices and Saprobity Indices are presented in Table 5.20 and existing water quality class is depicted in the map below.

From data, it is evident that as long as the river passes through the hills and reserve forests (Jim Corbett National Park) the deterioration of biological water quality is negligible. The deterioration of water quality starts in Bijnor district as some industries dispose their waste into the river. At downstream of Moradabad, where drain and river Dhela joins the river, the river stretch is affected. The river regains itself a bit but sudden load from Rampur deteriorates its quality to class D. Further downstream, it slowly recovers its biota and maintains Class C till it joins the river Ganga.

5.3 AIR QUALITY MONITORING

5.3.1 Air Quality Assessment

The air quality of different cities/towns with respect to three criteria pollutants has been compared with the respective National Ambient Air Quality Standards and categorized into four broad categories based on an Exceedence Factor (the ratio of annual mean concentration of a pollutant with that of a respective standard). The Exceedence Factor (EF) is calculated as follows:

Observed annual mean concentration of criteria pollutant
Exceedence Factor = --------------------------------------------------------------- Annual standard for the respective pollutant and area class

The four air quality categories are:

Critical pollution (C) : when EF is more than 1.5;
High pollution (H) : when the EF is between 1.0 - 1.5;
Moderate pollution (M) : with and EF between 0.5 - 1.0; and
Low pollution (L) : where the EF is less than 0.5.

This analysis contains the air quality assessment of 155 monitoring locations (in 64 cities/towns), out of which 81 are in residential, 71 in industrial and 3 in sensitive areas. At 49 locations (27 residential and 22 industrial), data are insufficient (< 50 monitoring days in the year) with respect to gaseous pollutants and at 56 locations (36 residential, 19 industrial and 1 sensitive) with respect to SPM (Table 5.21). Such locations have not been considered for air quality assessment.

Table 5.21 Classification of Monitoring Stations

Area type	Number of monitoring stations with adequate data	Number of locations with inadequate data
		Gaseous Pollutants	SPM
Residential	81	27	36
Industrial	71	22	19
Sensitive	3	-	1
Total	155	49	56

Table 5.22 Ambient Air Quality Status of various cities/towns during Year 2000

Pollution level	Annual Mean Concentration Range (µg/m³)
	Industrial (I)					Residential (R)
	SO₂& NO₂			SPM		SO₂& NO₂			SPM
Low (L)	0-40			0-180		0-30			0-70
Moderate (M)	40-80			180-360		30-60			70-140
High (H)	80-120			360-540		60-90			140-210
Critical (C)	>120			>540		>90			>210
STATE / CITY		SO₂			NO₂			SPM
AREA CLASS		I	R		I		R	I		R
Andhra Pradesh
Hyderabad		L	L		M		L	M		M
Vishakhapatnam		L	L		L		L	L		M
Assam
Guwahati			L				M			H
Bihar/Jharkhand
Dhanbad		L	L		L		L	M		C
Jharia		L	-		L		-	H		-
Jamshedpur		M	M		M		M	M		C
Patna		-	L		-		L	-		C
Delhi
Delhi		L	L		M		H	M		C
Gujarat
Ahmedabad		L	L		L		M	-		-
Goa
Ponda		-	L		-		L	-		M
Vasco		L	-		L		-	L		-
Himachal Pradesh
Damtal		-	L		-		L	-		C
Parwanoo		L	L		L		L	M		H
Paonta Sahib		L	-		L		-	L		-
Shimla		-	L		-		L	-		L
Haryana
Yamuna Nagar		L	-		L		-	M		-
Karnataka
Bangalore		L	L		L		M	L		C
Mysore		L	-		L		-	L		-
Kerala
Cochin		M	L		L		M	L		-
Kottayam		L	-		L		-	L		-
Kozhikode		L	L		L		L	L		L
Palakad		L	-		M		-	L		-
Thiruvananthapuram		L	L		L		L	L		L

STATE / CITY		SO₂			NO₂			SPM
AREA CLASS		I	R		I		R	I		R
Maharashtra
Mumbai		L	L		L		M	-		-
Chandrapur		L	L		M		M	L		H
Nagpur		L	L		L		M	L		H
Nasik		L	M		L		L	L		M
Pune		M	M		M		H	L		H
Solapur		L	L		M		M	H		C
Madhya Pradesh
Bhilai		L	L		L		M	L		M
Bhopal		L	L		L		L	L		H
Indore		L	L		L		L	M		C
Jabalpur		-	-		-		L	-		M
Korba		-	L		-		L	-		M
Nagda		M	M		M		L	L		M
Raipur		L	L		L		M	L		H
Satna		L	L		L		L	M		M
Meghalaya
Motinagar		-	L		-		L	-		L
Orissa
Angul		-	L		-		L	-		H
Rourkela		L	L		L		L	L		H
Talcher		L	-		L		-	L		-
Punjab
Gobindgarh		L	-		L		-	H		-
Jalandhar		L	L		L		M	M		C
Ludhiana		L	L		L		M	M		C
Rajasthan
Alwar		L	L		H		H	M		C
Jaipur		L	L		M		M	-		-
Kota		L	L		L		L	M		-
Udaipur		-	L		M		M	-		-
Tamil Nadu
Chennai		L	L		L		L	L		-
Madurai		L	L		L		M	L		H
Salem		-	-		-		L	-		M
Uttar Pradesh/Uttranchal
Agra		-	L		-		L	-		C
Anpara		M	-		M		-	M		-
Dehradun		L	L		L		L	M		C
Gajroula		L	-		L		-	M		H
Kanpur		L	L		L		M	M		C




STATE / CITY		SO₂			NO₂			SPM
AREA CLASS		I	R		I		R	I		R
West Bengal
Haldia		L	-		M		-	L		-
Howrah		L	L		M		M	L		M
Kolkata		L	L		M		M	-		-
Chandigarh		-	-		-		-	M		H
Pondichery		-	L		-		L	-		M

Note : ‘-‘ - Data Not Available/Inadequate

5.3.2 Status of Air Pollutants

Sulphur Dioxide (SO₂)

The annual mean concentration of SO₂ vis-à-vis number of monitoring stations is depicted in Fig 5.12. It is observed that all the locations conformed to the respective standards.

Fig 5.12 Annual mean concentration of Sulphur Dioxide (various ranges )vis-à-vis Number of monitoring stations

The locations having highest ten values of annual mean concentration of Sulphur Dioxide are presented in Table 5.23. The annual mean concentration of Sulphur dioxide were within the designated air quality standards at all the locations.

Table 5.23 Ten locations having highest concentration of Sulphur Dioxide during year 2000

S. No	Industrial			Residential
S. No	Location	State	Annual mean conc. (µg/m³)	Location	State	Annual mean conc. (µg/m³)
1.	Anpara Colony, Anpara	U.P.	65	Sakchi water tower, Jamshedpur	Bihar	53
2.	Renusagar Colony, Anpara	U.P.	64	Grasim Kalyan Kendra, Nagda	M.P.	51
3.	Chemical Division Labour Club, Nagda	M.P.	53	Mandai, Pune	Maharashtra	43
4.	Burmamines Water tower, Jamshed pur	Bihar	47	M/s Chemiquip Ltd., Ambarnath	Maharashtra	38
5.	Poud Phata (Kothrud), Pune	Maharashtra	46	Nasik Municipal Corpn. Building, Nasik	Maharashtra	36
6.	Eloor, Cochin	Kerala	42	RTO Colony Tank, Nasik	Maharashtra	31
7.	Super Market, Haldia	West Bengal	34	Sub-R. Office, Bapat Nagar, Chandrapur	Maharashtra	28
8.	KIADB Building, Mysore	Karnataka	31	Kothari Market, M.G. Road, Indore	M.P.	27
9.	K.R. Circle, Visvesvaraya Bldg, Mysore	Karnataka	31	Visak Hostel, Sec.-4, Bhilai	M.P.	27
10	M.I.D.C. Chandrapur	Maharashtra	30	Anand Rao Circle, Bangalore	Karnataka	24

* - Locations, where Annual mean concentration of SO₂ exceeded the respective standard of 80 µg/m³for industrial and 60 µg/m³for Residential areas.

Fig 5.13 Percent violation of 24-hourly Ambient Air Quality Standards (Sulphur dioxide)

Percent violation with respect to 24-hourly Air Quality Standards is depicted in Fig. 5.13. During year 2000, at Nagda, Madhya Pradesh, either Annual Mean Concentration or 24-hourly or both values exceeded the respective standards.

Based on the analysis of air quality data (Annual Mean Concentration) at all the monitoring stations and pollution level categorization, the status of SO₂ levels during year 2000 is presented in the Fig 5.14.

Fig 5.14 Status of Sulphur Dioxide (SO₂) levels in terms of high, moderate and low pollution

Oxides of Nitrogen (as NO₂)

The annual mean concentration of Nitrogen dioxide vis-à-vis number of monitoring stations is presented in Fig. 5.15. It is observed that at one sensitive, one industrial and three residential locations, the NO₂ level exceeded the annual standards_.

Fig 5.15 Annual mean concentration of Nitrogen Dioxide (various ranges ) vis-à-vis Number of monitoring stations

The annual mean concentration standards of Nitrogen Dioxide of sensitive area exceeded at city of Kota. Table 5.24 enlist locations having ten highest values of annual mean concentration of Nitrogen dioxide.

Table 5.24 Ten Locations having Highest Concentration of Nitrogen Dioxide

	Industrial			Residential
S.No	Location	State	Annual mean conc. (µg/m³)	Location	State	Annual mean conc. (µg/m³)
1.	RIICO Pump House, Alwar	Rajasthan	81*	Regional Office, RSPCB, Alwar	Rajasthan	79*
2.	Super Market, Haldia	West Bengal	77	Town Hall, Delhi	Delhi	64*
3.	Gaurav Solvex, Alwar	Rajasthan	73	Mandai, Pune	Maharashtra	60*
4.	Anpara Colony, Anpara	U.P.	68	M/s Chemiquip Ltd., Ambarnath	Maharashtra	58
5.	Renusagar Colony, Anpara	U.P.	67	Anand Rao Circle, Bangalore	Karnataka	56
6.	Poud Phata, (Kothrud) , Pune	Maharashtra	64	Sarojini Nagar, Delhi	Delhi	53
7.	WBIIDC, Haldia	West Bengal	60	Sakchi Water Tower, Jamshedpur	Bihar	52
8.	Howrah Municipal Corpn., Howrah	West Bengal	60	Sub-R.O., Bapat Nagar, Chandrapur	Maharashtra	51
9.	Palakad, Kanjokode (W)	Kerala	60	Bandhaghat, Howrah	West Bengal	50
10	ESI Disp., Nazafgarh Road, Delhi	Delhi	57	Tripolia Bazar, Jaipur	Rajasthan	47

* - Locations where annual mean concentration of NO₂ exceeded the respective standards of 80 µg/m³
for Industrial and 60 µg/m³for Residential areas.

Percentage violations with respect to 24-hourly standards is depicted in Fig. 5.16. The number of locations where either annual mean or 24-hourly concentration exceeded the Air Quality standards for NO₂ for more than 5% times are listed in Table 5.25. During 2000, one sensitive, three industrial and eleven residential locations violated the 24-hourly Air Quality Standards of NO₂ for more than 5% of the times.

Fig 5.16 Percent violation of 24-hourly standards (Nitrogen Dioxide)

Table 5.25 Locations where either annual mean or 24-hourly Nitrogen Dioxide concentration violated respective standards
Location	State	Area Class	Annual Mean Conc. (µg/m³)	% Exceedence Over 24-Hourly Air Quality Standards
Jhotwara Industrial Area, Jaipur	Rajasthan	Industrial	48	7
M/S Carborandum Universal Ltd.,Kanj	Kerala	Industrial	60	12
Super Market, Haldia	West Bengal	Industrial	77	8
Anand Rao Circle, Bangalore	Karnataka	Residential	56	15
M/s Chemiequip Ltd, Ambarnath	Maharashtra	Residential	58	24
N.Y. SCHOOL, Sarojini Nagar, Delhi	Delhi	Residential	53	8
Town Hall, Delhi	Delhi	Residential	64	18
Tripolia Bazar, Jaipur	Rajasthan	Residential	47	10
PHED, Gandhi Nagar, Jaipur	Rajasthan	Residential	35	6
Maskasath, Nagpur	Maharashtra	Residential	32	5
Kalbadevi, Bombay	Maharashtra	Residential	34	7
Regional Office, Alwar	Rajasthan	Residential	79	41
Kunnathur chatram East Avani moolai	Tamil Nadu	Residential	36	7
Bandhaghat, Howrah	West Bengal	Residential	50	5

Based on the analysis of air quality data at all the monitoring stations and pollution level categorization, the status of NO₂ during 2000 is presented in the Fig 5.17. In residential area, NO₂ is reported to be high at one industrial and three residential locations in the country. It is observed that NO₂ violations are mainly in the State of Rajasthan (Alwar ), Delhi and Maharashtra (at Pune).

Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)

The annual mean concentration of SPM vis-à-vis number of monitoring stations is presented in Fig. 5.18. It is observed that at two sensitive, five industrial and 35 residential locations, SPM level exceeded the annual Air Quality standards for SPM. Table 5.26 enlists the ten locations having ten highest values of SPM in the country.

Fig 5.17 Status of Nitrogen Dioxide levels in terms of high, moderate and low pollution

Fig. 5.18 Annual Mean Concentration of SPM (various ranges) vis-à-vis Number of monitoring stations

Table 5.26 Ten locations having highest concentration of Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)

	Industrial			Residential
S. No	Location	State	Annual Mean Conc. (µg/m³)	Location	State	Annual Mean Conc. (µg/m³)
1.	M. Steels, Mandi Govindgargh	Punjab	399*	Gandhi Maidan, Test Centre, Patna	Bihar	575*
2.	Punjab Steel Mills, Mandi Govindgargh	Punjab	396*	Clock Tower, MC Office, Ludhiana	Punjab	449*
3.	WIT Campus, Solapur	Maharashtra	390*	Chitale Clinic, Solapur	Maharashtra	399*
4.	Nunhai, Agra	U.P.	388*	F & T Centre, K. Nagar, Kanplur	U.P.	349*
5.	MADA, Jharia	Bihar	373*	Regional Office, Bodla, Agra	U.P.	349*
6.	Rita Sewing Machines, Ludhiana	Punjab	354	Deputy Ka Parao, Kanpur	U.P.	347*
7.	M/s A.Chem.P.Ltd., Fazalganj, Kanpur	U.P.	354	Municipal Council, Jalandhar	Punjab	328*
8.	MP Laghu Udyog Nigam Ltd., Indore	M.P.	354	Ashok Vihar, Delhi	Delhi	306*
9.	Shahzada Bagh, Delhi	Delhi	342	Kothari Market, MG Road, Indore	M.P.	292*
10	M/s Zed Indl. S & S Complex, Jalandhar	Punjab	324	Regional Office, Jalandhar	Punjab	289*

The annual mean concentration of SPM exceeded the standard for industrial area at five locations in the state of Bihar (1), Maharashtra (1), Punjab (2), and Uttar .Pradesh (1).

The annual mean concentration of SPM exceeded the standard for residential areas at 35 locations spread over the states of Assam (1), Bihar (4), Chandigarh (1), Delhi (4), H.P. (2), Karnataka (1), Maharashtra (6), M.P. (4), Orissa (2), Punjab (3), Rajasthan (1), Tamil Nadu (1) and Uttar Pradesh (5).

Only one station in sensitive area located at Taj Mahal, Agra (U.P.), exceeded the annual mean concentration of SPM.

The details of location where 24-hourly values of SPM exceeded the standards for more than 5% of the times are depicted in Fig. 5.19. During 2000, three sensitive locations (Tajmahal at Agra, Barkhera at Kota and Tekka Bench Ridge at Shimla), 10 industrial and 42 residential locations violated the 24-hourly values of SPM for more than 5% of times.

Fig 5.19 Percent violation of 24-hourly standards (Suspended Particulate Matter)

Status of SPM

Based on the analysis of air quality data (Annual Mean Concentration) at all the monitoring stations and pollution level categorization, the status of SPM during 2000 (Fig. 5.20) is reported to be critical at 19 locations and high at 16 locations in residential areas while high at 5 locations in industrial areas.

Summary and Conclusion

Air Pollution problem is widespread in 59 cities, where at least one criteria pollutant exceeded either annual or 24-hourly air quality standards at any of the monitoring locations.

Table 5.27 shows the number of stations violating annual air quality standards and 24-Hourly standards for more than 2% of the times in the year 2000 with respect to individual criteria pollutant. It is quite evident that SPM is the major problem in the residential areas of most of the cities/towns.

Fig. 5.20 Status of Suspended Particulate Matter level in terms of critical, high, moderate and low pollution

Table 5.27 Number of stations violating Annual and 24-hourly standards

Area Class	SO₂		NO₂		SPM
Area Class	24-Hourly	Annual	24-Hourly	Annual	24-Hourly	Annual
Residential	2	-	17	3	45	35
Industrial	1	-	4	1	14	5
Sensitive	-	-	1	1	1	1
Total	3	0	22	5	60	41

High level of SPM is the most prevalent form of air pollution.

Motor vehicle are the major and most important source of pollution in almost all the mega-cities.

High domestic use of coal or biomass fuel is still a serious problem resulting in high human exposures to SPM and SO₂.

The current capabilities of the monitoring agencies to monitor, or to collect information on the sources and emissions are still inadequate. Therefore, there is an urgent need to further strengthen the Air Quality monitoring programme.

It should be noted that the data are lacking for quite a few stations due to various reasons such as non-operation of monitoring stations due to paucity of funds, lack of equipments, lack of infrastructure and inadequate man-power.

5.3.3 Respirable Suspended Particulate (RSPM) Monitoring

RSPM levels were measured in various cities and towns in India. Under National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Network the RSPM levels in residential areas are depicted in Fig 5.21. RSPM levels exceeded the NAAQS (annual average) in residential areas of Hyderabad, Visakhapatnam, Delhi, Ahmedabad, Parwanoo, Bangalore, Cochin, Dehradun, Thiruvananthapuram, Mumbai, Nagpur, Pune, Solapur, Angul, Rourkela, Jaipur, Chennai, Kanpur, Lucknow and Kolkata. The RSPM levels in industrial areas are depicted in Fig 5.22. RSPM levels also exceeded the NAAQS (annual average) in industrial areas of Ahmedabad, Dehradun, Thiruvannathapuram, Solapur, Jaipur, Kanpur and Kolkata.

RSPM levels were within the NAAQS (annual average) in residential areas of Kozhikode and Shillong and industrial areas of Hyderabad, Visakhapatnam, Bangalore, Mysore, Cochin, Kotayam, Kozhokode, Palakkad, Mumbai, Nagpur, Pune, Rourkela and Chennai.

RSPM Non-attainment

Air quality with respect to RSPM is expressed in terms of low, moderate, high and critical and is shown in Table 5.28. Critical levels of RSPM were observed in residential areas of Hyderabad, Delhi, Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Cochin, Dehradun, Thiruvananthapuram, Mumbai, Nagpur, Pune, Solapur, Rourkela, Jaipur, Kanpur, Lucknow and Kolkata. High levels of RSPM were observed in residential areas of Visakhapatnam. Parwanoo, Angul and Chennai. These results indicate that NAAQS (annual average) of RSPM was exceeded in above cities.

Critical levels of RSPM were observed in industrial areas of Ahmedabad, Thiruvananthapuram, Solapur, Jaipur, Kanpur and Kolkata and high levels of RSPM were observed in industrial area of Hyderabad and Dehradun. These results indicate that ambient air standards (annual average) of RSPM was exceeded in above mentioned cities. Moderate levels were observed in residential areas of Kozhikode and Shillong and industrial areas of Mysore, Cochin, Kottayam,

Mumbai, Nagpur, Pune and Rourkella. These results indicate that NAAQS (annual average) were not exceeded in above mentioned cities. Status of RSPM in residential areas and industrial areas of various cities/towns in the country is depicted in Fig. 5.23 and 5.24 respectively.

Table 5.28: RSPM status of various cities/towns during 2000 (Representing the Monitoring Stations with
Highest Levels in Each category)

	Annual Mean Concentration Range (µg/m³)
Pollution level	Industrial (I)				Residential (R)
	RSPM Levels				RSPM Levels
Low (L)	0-60				0-30
Moderate (M)	60-120				30-60
High (H)	120-180				60-90
Critical (C)	>180				>90
STATE / CITY	RSPM
AREA CLASS	I				R
Andhra Pradesh
Hyderabad	H				C
Vishakhapatnam	L				H
Delhi
Delhi	-				C
Gujarat
Ahmedabad	C				C
Himachal Pradesh
Parwanoo	-				H
Karnataka
Bangalore	L				C
Mysore	M				-
Kerala
Cochin	M				C
Kottayam	M				-
Kozhikode	L				M
Thiruvananthapuram	C				C
Kanjikode	L				-
Maharashtra
Mumbai	M				C
Nagpur	M				C
Pune	M				C
Solapur	C				C
Meghalaya
Shillong	-				M
Orissa
Angul	-				H
Rourkela	M				C
Rajasthan
Jaipur			C	C
Tamil Nadu
Chennai	M				H*

STATE / CITY			RSPM
AREA CLASS			I	R
Uttar Pradesh/Uttranchal
Dehradun			H	C
Kanpur		C				C
Lucknow		-				C
West Bengal
Kolkata		C				C

‘-‘ - Data Not Available/Inadequate

* - Representing one monitoring station in residential area

RSPM Violations of NAAQS (24-hourly Avg.)

Percentage violation of NAAQS (24-hourly average) was determined. NAAQS (24-hourly avg.) was not violated at Industrial Estate Visakhapatnam; K.R. Circle, Mysore; Chingavanam, Kottayam, Mavoor, Palayam, Kozhikode, Kanjikode, Palakkad, Thane (West), Kopri Ward Office, Shahu Market, Thane; Boards Office, Shillong. The NAAQS (24-hourly avg.) was violated at the remaining stations.

Meteorological Issues

It is well established that meteorological factors such as atmospheric stability and wind velocity etc. play a critical role in determining ambient concentration of air pollutants. It is essential to understand the underlying meteorological factors for determining ambient air concentration of pollutants and effectiveness of any pollution control strategy. Seasonal variations in RSPM in Chennai, Mumbai and Kolkata is depicted in Fig. 5.25, 5.26 and 5.27 respectively. The concentrations are maximum in winter months and are low during monsoon months. A possible explanation for these results may be found by examining meteorological conditions.

During the winter, average mixing height is lower as compared to other seasons and atmospheric dispersion is typically at a minimum and therefore the pollutants are not widely dispersed. During winter months calm conditions are more and calm conditions result in less dispersion of pollutants resulting in building up their levels and hence higher concentrations.

The monsoons results in large amount of precipitation, high wind velocities and changes in general wind direction. The large amounts of precipitation reduce atmospheric pollution via associated wet deposition processes. Further wind velocities will allow for pollutant transport away from sources, increase mixing processes. Winds coming from the marine environment in Chennai will have less background concentrations than that of continental air masses.

Conclusions

RSPM levels are exceeding the ambient air standards (annual average and 24-hourly avg.) in many locations in the country. The results suggest that RSPM is a pollutant of concern in the country.

The high RSPM levels are mainly attributed to vehicular pollution. The vehicle population is exponentially increasing in most of cities. This is the single major factor for high RSPM.

It is observed that highest level of RSPM in residential areas was observed in Ahmedabad followed by Kanpur, Solapur, Lucknow, Delhi, Bangalore, Dehradun, Thiruvananthapuram, Kolkata, Rourkela, Nagpur, Pune, Jaipur, Cochin, Hyderabad, Mumbai, Angul, Parwanoo, Visakhapatnam and Chennai.

The concentration of RSPM not only depends on total emission load but on meteorological conditions like ventilation, inversion, humidity, wind direction and velocity, rainfall pattern and thus a city with low emission load may have high ambient air concentrations of pollutants.

Lower levels of RSPM are observed during monsoon months possibly due to wet deposition. Higher levels of RSPM are observed during winter months possibly due to lower mixing heights and more calm conditions.

The annual average concentration in residential areas varies between 253 µg/m³ in Ahmedabad and 34 µg/m³ in Shillong. In industrial areas the annual average concentration varied between 262 µg/m³ in Ahmedabad and 26 µg/m³ in Kozhikode.

The concentration of RSPM not only depends on total emission load but also on meteorological conditions like ventilation, inversion, humidity, wind direction and velocity, rainfall pattern and thus a city with low emission load may have high ambient air concentrations of pollutants.

5.3.4 Air Quality Non-attainment Cities

CPCB has identified list of cities in India based on ambient air quality data obtained under National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP) for the period 1995 to 2001. The cities have been identified by calculating a Exceedence Factor as explained in previous sections (Table 5.29).

Table 5.29 LIST OF NON-ATTAINMENT CITIES IN INDIA

(Based on Ambient Air Quality Data 1995-2001)

S.No.	Cities	Major Sources of Pollution	Pollutants of Concern
A) Metropolitan Cities
1	AGRA	Vehicle, Industries	SPM
2	AHMEDABAD	Vehicle, Industries	SO₂ RSPM,SPM
3	BANGALORE	Vehicle	RSPM,SPM
4	BHOPAL	Vehicle	RSPM,SPM
5	CHENNAI	Vehicle, Industries	RSPM
6	DELHI	Vehicle,	NO₂, RSPM,SPM
7	DHANBAD	Industries	SO₂ SPM
8	FARIDABAD	Vehicles, Industries	SPM
9	HYDERABAD	Vehicles	RSPM, SPM
10	INDORE	Vehicles	RSPM,SPM
11	JABALPUR	Vehicles	NO₂,RSPM,SPM
12	JAIPUR	Vehicles	RSPM,SPM
13	KANPUR	Vehicles, Industries	RSPM,SPM
14	KOCHI	Vehicles, Industries	RSPM,SPM
15	KOLKATA	Vehicles, Industries	RSPM,SPM, NO₂
16	LUCKNOW	Vehicles,	RSPM,SPM
17	LUDHIANA	Vehicles,Industries	SPM,RSPM
18	MADURAI	Vehicles,	SPM
19	MUMBAI	Vehicles, Industries	RSPM.SPM
20	NAGPUR	Vehicles	RSPM,SPM
21	NASHIK	Vehicles	RSPM,SPM
22	PATNA	Vehicles, Natural Dust	SPM
23	PUNE	Vehicles,	RSPM,NO₂,SPM
24	SURAT	Industries, Vehicles	SO₂, SPM
25	VADODARA	Vehicles, Industries	SO₂, SPM
26	VARANASI	Vehicles, Natural Dust	RSPM.SPM
27	VISAKHAPATNAM	Vehicles, Industries	NO₂,RSPM,SPM
B) Other Cities
1	ALWAR	Vehicles, Natural Dust	NO₂, SPM
2	ANGUL	Vehicles, Industries, Natural Dust	SPM
3	ANKLESHWAR	Industries	SO₂, SPM
4.	BHILAI	Industries	SPM
5	CHANDIGARH	Vehicles, Industries	SPM
6	CHANDRAPUR	Industries	SPM
7	DAMTAL	Natural Dust	SPM
8	DEHRADUN	Vehicles, Natural Dust	RSPM, SPM
9	GAJRAULA	Industries	SPM
10	GOBINDGARH	Industries	SPM
11	HOWRAH	Vehicles, Industries	SO₂, NO_2, SPM
12	JALANDHAR	Vehicles, Industries	SPM
13	JHARIA	Industries, Natural Dust	SPM
14	JODHPUR	Natural Dust	RSPM. SPM
15	KORBA	Industries	SPM
16	KOTA	Vehicles Industries	NO₂, RSPM,SPM
17	NAGDA	Industries	SO₂, SPM
18	PARWANOO	Industries, Natural Dust	SPM
19	RAIPUR	Vehicles	RSPM, SPM
20	RAJKOT	Vehicles, Natural Dust	SPM
21	ROURKELA	Industries	SPM
22	SATNA	Industries	SPM
23	SHIMLA	Natural Dust	SPM
24	SOLAPUR	Vehicles, Natural Dust	RSPM,SPM
25	UDAIPUR	Vehicles, Natural Dust	NO₂, SPM
26	VAPI	Industries	SPM

5.3.5 Ambient Air Quality Monitoring in Delhi

The Central Pollution Control Board has been conducting ambient air quality monitoring at seven locations in Delhi. The locations have been categorized based on land use, i.e. residential, industrial and traffic intersection. The comparision of ambient air quality data for the years 2000 and 2001 reveal that:

Concentrations of all regulatory pollutants in ambient air of Delhi have reduced during 2001.
Annual average SPM concentration for all monitoring sites in Delhi came down to 347 µg/m³ in 2001 from 405 µg/m³in the previous year.
Annual average value of RSPM for all sites came down to 137 µg/m³ in 2001 from a value of 159 in 2000.
Concentration of NO₂ in ambient air of Delhi decreased to 34 µg/m³ from 36 µg/m³.
SO₂also decreased to 14 µg/m³ from 18 µg/m³.

5.4 SPECIFIC STUDIES AT AIR QUALITY MONITORING STATIONS IN DELHI

5.4.1 Study of Fog in Delhi

In recent years, dense fog throughout the northern belt including Delhi during winter season has caused many problems resulting in slow vehicular movement, delay and cancellation of train and air services resulting in direct economic losses. The complexity of fog and its accurate measurement needs collaboration of concerned agencies to pool their resources to make measurement of various parameters, required for development of predictive model. With this objective, Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) was signed with National Physical Laboratory (NPL), New Delhi on March 27, 2000. The scope of the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) covers :

Studies of fog occurrence in Delhi and in Northern India, mechanism of its formation, its prediction and development of an early warning system.

Measurement of mean mixing height and occurrence of inversion in Delhi vis-a-vis other areas.

Studies on characterisation of suspended and respirable particulate matter in Delhi and other areas in order to characterise their origin.

During January, 2001, monitoring of various parameters influencing the onset of fog was conducted by NPL using the infrastructure available. The campaign conducted in January, 2001 provided information on the meteorological and other processes as fog condenses, changes with time and eventually disappears. The second monitoring campaign was initiated by National Physical Laboratory during November, 2001 – February, 2002. During this campaign number of parameters like mixing height, temperature, relative humidity, pressure, size fraction (of SPM), SO₂, NO₂ were monitored. As direct correlation could not be established between fog and the level of pollutants, it was agreed to continue the study further. Keeping this into consideration, the duration of the project has been extended further for a period of two years.

5.4.2 SODAR System

Central Pollution Control Board is regularly collecting mixing height data using SODAR. In summer and monsoon season of 2001 free convection in the atmosphere was starting mostly from 07.00 a.m. or 08.00 a.m. and remained upto 06.00 p.m. or 07.00 p.m.. In post monsoon season, free convection was mostly from 09.00 a.m. to 06.00 p.m. In winter the free convection was mostly from 10.00 a.m. or 11.00 a.m. to 04.00 p.m. or 05.00 p.m. Day time mixing height measured in different seasons in the order of higher mixing height to lower mixing height were as monsoon, summer, post monsoon and winter. Night time mixing height measured in different seasons in the order of lower mixing height to higher mixing height are as post monsoon, winter, monsoon and summer. The maximum mixing height value (hourly average) measured in summer was 1604 m and minimum value was 80 m. Maximum value measured in monsoon was 1299 m and minimum was 110 m. Maximum value measured in post monsoon was 1299 m and minimum value measured was 80 m. Maximum value measured in winter was 1240 m and minimum was 80 m.

This year dense fog started occurring in mid November 2001. In December, 2001, fog occurred for more than 15 days. On December 28^th & 29^th, 2001 and January 01^st, 2002, SODAR gave only shear echoes. Mixing heights of December 21^st, 2001 (when there was no fog), December 12^th, 2001 (when fog occurred and dissipated by 12.00 noon) and December 28^th, 2001 when fog remained throughout the day. SPM and RSPM concentrations on December 12^th, 2001 (fog in morning), December 21^st, 2001 (clear day) and December 28^th, 2001 (foggy day), are presented ahead. The data indicates that the SPM and RSPM concentrations increase during the fog period.

Date	Duration	SPM (µg/m³)	RSPM (µg/m³)
12.12.2001	06.00-06.00 Hrs.	648	357
21.12.2001	06.00-06.00 Hrs.	524	249
28.12.2001	06.00-06.00 Hrs.	837	457

In December, 2001, free convection in the atmosphere was observed only after 11.00 a.m. and remained upto 04.00 p.m. or 05.00 p.m.. In January-February, 2001, it was mostly from 10.00 a.m. to 05.00 p.m. or 06.00 p.m.. In summer and monsoon season, free convection was starting mostly from 07.00 a.m. or 08.00 a.m. and remained upto 06.00 p.m. or 07.00 p.m.. In post monsoon season, free convection was mostly between 09.00 a.m. to 06.00 p.m.

5.4.3 Ambient Noise Level and Air Pollution during Deepawali

Ambient noise level monitoring was carried out at various locations in Delhi, i.e. All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), Lajpat Nagar, New Friends Colony, East Arjun Nagar, Connaught Place, India Gate, Mayur Vihar, Patel Nagar and Kamla Nagar on the occasion of Deepawali festival. At Kamla Nagar noise monitoring was conducted from 18.00 hrs. to 24.00 hrs., while at other locations, short duration (half hourly) noise level monitoring was conducted between 18.00 hrs. and 24.00 hrs.. The average Leq noise level for short duration at 8 monitored locations ranged between 66 dB(A) and 85 dB(A). The Leq noise level at Kamla Nagar ranged between 73 dB(A) and 80 dB(A). The minimum instantaneous value, recorded at Kamla Nagar, was 47 dB(A) (between 18.30 hrs. and 19.00 hrs) and the maximum value, recorded was 101 dB(A) (between 19.30 hrs. and 20 hrs.). The ambient noise levels were above the prescribed limit at all the locations but did not indicate much variation as compared to the previous year’s data.

Ambient air quality monitoring was also carried out at ITO Intersection and Ashok Vihar using manual monitoring techniques and at East Patel Nagar (Pusa Road) using the mobile monitoring van. The Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM) were high in the evening hours on Deepawali day. The concentration of Sulphur dioxide (SO₂), Oxides of Nitrogen (NO_x) and Carbon monoxide (CO) indicated a mixed trend which may be because of varying traffic density.

5.4.4 Inspection of Authorised Pollution Checking Centres in Delhi

The authorised Pollution Checking Centres in Delhi, covering almost all zones, were inspected during June, 2001 to assess the methodology of calibration of instruments. The brief report was prepared and sent to Directorate of Transport (Govt. Of Delhi).

5.4.5 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Monitoring in Delhi

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) is being monitored at seven Air Quality Monitoring Stations in Delhi. These seven locations are Ashok Vihar, Siri Fort, Janakpuri, Nizamuddin, Shahdara, Shahzada Bagh and ITO.

The study revealed that :

Annual average PAH concentration was minimum at Janakpuri and maximum at Nizamuddin;
Higher PAH levels were observed during winter season due to inversion and calm conditions; and
Least PAH levels were observed during summer may be due to better dispersion and photolysis of PAH compounds.

Fig. 5.32 Total PAH Concentration (ng/m³) in Ambient Air of Delhi

5.4.6 On-line Active BTX Monitoring in Delhi

On-line monitoring of Benzene, Toluene and Xylene (BTX) at ITO monitoring station has been undertaken since November 2000. In addition, monitoring of BTX in ambient air was conducted at several locations in Delhi using continuous online instrument (MLU 950 of Synspec). The data revealed that the average benzene levels were highest at ITO during winter and lowest at the campus of National Physical Laboratory during summer. Overall average benzene concentration in ambient air of Delhi was 12.5 µg/m³ while 16.5 µg/m³ & 7.0 µg/m³ respectively during winter and summer season.

5.4.7 Benzene Levels in the Ambient Air of Delhi

Environmental pollution caused by volatile organic compounds (VOC's) has become a global environmental issue. VOC is a collective name for a large group of compounds with greatly different properties and having a vapour pressure greater than 10^-1 mm Hg at 25 ⁰C and 760 mm Hg. It can be classified into six categories namely alkanes, alkenes, alkyenes, aromatics, halogen compounds and carboxyl compounds. Benzene comes under aromatic category of volatile organic compounds. Benzene is a harmful pollutant causing exposure-related health affects in human beings. Benzene is mainly released from anthropogenic activities such as transportation (from vehicle exhaust, filling and evaporative losses), industrial processes, combustion etc. Central Pollution Control Board is monitoring benzene at Delhi using diffusive samplers (passive sampling method) at seven locations (Ashok Vihar, I.T.O, J.N.U., Moti Nagar, East Arjun Nagar, SiriFort, Town Hall) in collaboration with Indo – German project. Minimum, maximum and mean concentration of benzene at different locations of Delhi (December 2001 to March 2002) is depicted in Fig. 5.33. The mean concentration of benzene ranged between 17 µg/ m³ (J.N.U) to 35 µg/ m³ (Moti Nagar). The maximum concentration of 71 µg/ m³ and the minimum concentration of 5 µg/m³were observed at Moti Nagar and J.N.U. respectively.

5.4.8 Trace Metals in Ambient Air of Delhi

Five trace elements viz. lead, cadmium, chromium, nickel and copper are being measured in the ambient air of Delhi. Comparison of their levels between 2000 and 2001 show that variation in concentration is not very significant. Out of the five trace elements measured, copper showed the highest concentration ranging between 447-537 ng/m³. Other elements such as Cromium (Cr) and Cadmium (Cd) were present in traces, while Lead (Pb) after introduction of unleaded petrol has shown a progressive decline over the years (Fig 5.34).

5.4 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE (MSW) MANAGEMENT IN DELHI

Pursuant to an order of the Hon'ble High Court of Delhi, dated 28.04.1999, the Central Board is carrying out inspection and monitoring of MSW management by the civic authorities of NCT-Delhi once every four months. During the year 2001, three rounds of inspection were carried out and reports submitted to the Hon'ble Court. Salient recommendations made in these reports are:

Civic authorities in Delhi continue to deal the issues of MSW management on an ad-hoc basis.

There is an acute need for development of a Master Plan for Improvement of MSW Management by each of the civic authorities in Delhi in accordance with the guidelines prescribed in the Municipal Solid Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 2000.

The Master Plan has to take into account all the aspects of MSW management including primary collection, storage, transfer, transport and disposal, as identified and recommended by the Central Board in their inspection reports.

Implementation of the Master Plan should be carried out in a phased manner with clear time targets.

Measurable indicators to evaluate the improvements achieved by the civic authorities should be identified.

The institutional and logistical constraints which hinder the civic authorities in proper MSW management have to be identified. Viability of maintenance and management of MSW collection, transfer and transfer system by private sector involvement may be tested through a management contract of one or two Zones/Circles in MCD/NDMC areas.

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